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ALTEMUS' YOUNG PEOPLES LIBRARY 



ILLUSTRATED 

NATURAL HISTORY 



BYT5E Q ®/ 

REV. J. G.WOOD 



Arranged for Young Readers 



With Eighty Illustrations 




1 1 " 

PHILADELPHIA 

HENRY ALTEMUS 



IN UNIFORM STYLE 



Copiously Illustrated 



the pilgrim s progress 

Alice's adventures in wonderland 

through the looking-glass & what alice found there 

robinson crusoe 

the child's story of the bible 

the child's life of christ 

lives of the presidents of the united states 

the swiss family robinson 

THE FABLES OF iESOP 

christopher columbus and the discovery of america 

mother goose's rhymes, jingles and pales 

exploration and adventure in the frozen seas 

the story of discovery and exploration in africa 

gulliver's travels 

arabian nights* entertainments 

wood's natural history 

a child's history of england, by charles dickens 

BLACK BEAUTY, by ANNA SEWELL 



Price 50 Cents Each 



Henry Altemus, Philadelphia 



Copyright 1897 by Henry Altemus 



PREFACE. 



Although the number of works on Natural History 
might deter any writer from venturing on so extensively 
handled a subject, there is at present no work of a really 
popular character in which accuracy of information and 
systematic arrangement are united with brevity and sim- 
plicity of treatment. 

The present volume is but a brief digest of a large mass 
of materials, derived either from personal experience, from 
the most recent zoological writers, or from the kindness 
of many friends, who a#e familiar with almost every por- 
tion of the world, and to whom my best thanks are due. 

I dismiss these pages with almost a feeling of regret, 
that a task which has to me been a labor of love, has come 
to an end. Indeed, the only drawback experienced dur- 
ing its progress was its necessary brevity, which con- 
strained me to omit many creatures, not only beautiful 
and wonderful in form, but interesting in habits. I was 
also compelled to describe many others so briefly as to 
render the account little more than a formal announce- 
ment of their name, country, and food. In compressing 
the subject into a smaller compass I have concentrated 
the language without excluding any necessary informa- 
tion. 

(5) 




Head of the Prehistoric Man (restored). 

The above head is drawn on the basis of the skull found in 1857 at 
Neanderthal, near Diisseldorf, in Germany, and supposed to be the 
cranium of a prehistoric man. It is dolichocephalic and almost with- 
out a brow. 



(6) 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



QUADRUMANA. 

This section includes the apes, baboons and monkeys. 
The name Quadrumana is given to these animals because, 
in addition to two hands like those of man, their feet are 
also formed like hands, and are capable of grasping the 
branches among which most monkeys pass their lives. 
Apes are placed at the head because their instinct is su- 
perior to that of the baboons and monkeys. Baboons are 
usually sullen and ferocious when arrived at their full 
growth, and monkeys are volatile and mischievous. 

The first in order, as well as the largest of the apes, is 
the enormous ape from Western Africa, the Gorilla. 
The first writer to bring the Gorilla before the notice of 
the public seems to be Mr. Bowdich, the African traveller; 
for it is evidently of the Gorilla that he speaks under the 
name of Ingheena. The natives of the Gaboon and its 
vicinity use the name Gina when mentioning the Gorilla. 
The tales told of the habits, the gigantic strength, and the 
general appearance of the Ingheena, are precisely those 
which are attributed to the Gorilla. 

Such a deed as the capture of an adult Gorilla has never 
been attempted, much less achieved, by the human in- 
habitants of the same land. There are many reasons for 
this circumstance. In the first place, the negroes, seeing 
that the Gorilla is possessed of gigantic strength, conceive 
that the animal must be inspirited by the soul of one of 
their kings ; for in the lower stages of man's progress he 

(7) 



8 NATURAL HISTORY. 

does honor to physical force alone, and values his ruler in 
proportion to his power, brutality and heartlessness. 

The task of capturing a living and full-grown Gorilla is 
well calculated to appall the heart of any man. The 
strength, the activity and the cunning of the animal are so 
great, that the uncivilized Africans may well be excused 
for their dread of its pow r ers. 

The outline of the Gorilla's face is most brutal in char- 
acter, and entirely destroys the slight resemblance to the 
human countenance which the full form exhibits. As in 
the chimpanzee, an ape which is placed in the same genus 
with the Gorilla, the color of the hair is nearly black; but 
in some lights, and during the life of the animal, it assumes 
a lighter tinge of grayish brown, on account of the admix- 
ture of variously colored hairs. On the top of the head, 
and the side of the cheeks, it assumes a grizzly hue. The 
length of the hair is not very great, considering the size of 
the animal, and is not more than three inches in length. 

As to the habits of the Gorilla, many conflicting tales 
have been told. In order to settle the disputed questions, 
Mr. Winwoode Reade undertook a journey to Africa, 
where he remained for a considerable time. After careful 
investigation he sums up the history of the animal as fol- 
lows : 

" The ordinary cry of the Gorilla is of a plaintive char- 
acter, but in rage it is a sharp, hoarse bark, not unlike the 
roar of a tiger. The negroes' account of the ape's ferocity 
scarcely bears out those afforded by Drs. Savage and Ford. 
They deny that the Gorilla ever attacks man without 
provocation. ■ Leave Njina alone,' they say, ' and Njina 
leave you alone.' But when the Gorilla, surprised while 
feeding or asleep, is suddenly brought to bay, he goes 
round in a kind of half-circle, keeping his eyes fixed on 
the man, and uttering a complaining, uneasy cry. If the 
hunter shoots at him, and the gun misses fire, or if the 
ape is wounded, he will sometimes run away ; sometimes, 




Gorillas at Home. 



(9) 



10 NATURAL HISTORY. 

however, he will charge, with his fierce look, his lowered 
lip, his hair falling on his brow. He does not, how T ever, 
appear to be very agile, for the hunters frequently escape 
from him. 

u His charge is made on all-fours ; he seizes the offensive 
object, and dragging it into his mouth, bites it. The story 
of his crushing a musket-barrel between his teeth is gen- 
eral, and a French officer told me that a gun was exhibited 
at the French settlements in the Gaboon, twisted ' comme 
une papillate.' I heard a great deal about men being killed 
by Gorillas, but wherever I went I found that the story 
retreated to tradition. That a man might be killed by a 
Gorilla I do not affect to doubt for a moment, but that a 
man has not been killed by one within the memory of the 
living I can most firmly assert. 

" I once saw a man who had been wounded by a Gorilla. 
It was a Mohaga hunter, who piloted me in the forests of 
Ngumbi. His left hand was completelv crippled, and the 
marks of teeth were visible on the wrist. I asked him to 
show me exactly how the Gorilla attacked him. I was to 
be the hunter, he the Gorilla. I pretended to shoot at 
him. He rushed towards me on all-fours, and seizing my 
wrist with one of his hands, dragged it to his mouth, bit 
it, and then made off. So, he said, the Njina had done to 
him. It is by these simple tests that one can best arrive 
at truth among the negroes. That which I can attest from 
my own personal experience in my unsuccessful attempts 
to shoot a Gorilla is as follows : I have seen the nests of 
the Gorillas. I cannot say positively whether they are 
used as beds, or only as lying-in couches. I have repeat- 
edly seen the tracks of the Gorillas, and could tell by the 
tracks that the Gorilla goes habitually on all-fours. 

u I have never seen the tracks of so many as two Gorillas 
in company. I have seen a young Gorilla and a young 
chimpanzee in a domestic state. They were equally do- 
cile. I have seen the dung of the Gorilla, which resembles 



GORILLA. 



11 



that of a man ; and I can say positively that the Gorilla 
sometimes runs away from man, for I have been near 
enough to hear one run away from me. I heard that 
sometimes a family of Gorillas will ascend a tree and will 




Chimpanzee. 



eat a certain fruit till they become gorged, like turkey- 
buzzards. The old father remains seated at the foot of 
the tree. If you can approach close enough to shoot him, 
you may then kill the rest of the family at your ease. 
The second story is the one so often told, not only of Go- 



12 NATURAL HISTORY. 

rillas but of all large monkeys — of women being run away 
with. At a village on the right-hand bank of the Fernand 
Vaz, the women are said to have been frequently chased 
by Gorillas as they went to fill their calabashes at the 
spring. A woman was brought to me who stated that she 
herself had excited the passion of a Gorilla and had 
hardly escaped him. In all this, however, there is noth- 
ing wonderful. We know that monkeys are susceptible 
animals. But when one hears of a woman being carried 
off to the woods, and living among apes in a semi-domes- 
ticated state, we are justified in thorough disbelief. 

The Chimpanzee is a native of Western Africa. Large 
bands congregate together and unite in repelling an in- 
vader, which they do with such fury and courage that 
even the elephant and lion are driven from their haunts 
by their united efforts. They live principally on the 
ground, and spend much of their time in caves and under 
rocks. Their height is from four to five feet. They do 
not reach this growth until ten years of age. 

Several young Chimpanzees that have been captured 
have shown themselves very docile and gentle. 

The Orang-outan inhabits Borneo and Sumatra. This 
is the largest of all the apes, as it is said they have been 
obtained above five feet in height. The strength of this 
animal is tremendous. Its arms are of extraordinary 
length, the hands reaching the ground when it stands 
erect. This length of arm is admirably adapted for climb- 
ing trees, on which it principally resides. The following 
account is given of the Orangs of Borneo : 

" The Orangs are dull and slothful, and on no occasion, 
when pursuing them, did they move so fast as to preclude 
my keeping pace with them easily enough through a 
moderately clear forest ; and even when obstructions be- 
low (such as wading up to the neck) allowed them to get 
away some distance, they were sure to stop and allow us 
to come up. I never observed any attempt at defense; 




Oraxgs in their Native Woods. 



(13) 



14 NATURAL HISTORY. 

and the wood, which rattled about our ears, was broken 
by their weight, and not thrown, as some persons repre- 
sent. If pushed to extremity, however, they are formida- 
ble; and one unfortunate man, who was trying to catch 
one alive, lost two of his fingers, besides being severely 
bitten on the face, while the animal finally beat off his 
pursuers and escaped. When they wish to catch an adult 
they cut down a circle of trees round the one on which he 
is seated, and then fell that also, and close before he can 
recover himself, and endeavor to bind him. 

" The rude hut which they build in the trees would be 
more properly called a seat, or nest, for it has no roof or 
cover of any sort. The facility with which they form this 
seat is curious. I saw T a wounded female weave the 
branches together and seat herself in a minute. She 
afterwards received our fire without moving, and expired 
in her lofty abode, whence it cost us much trouble to dis- 
lodge her." 

The great difference between the kassar and the pappan 
(as the natives name them) in size proves the distinction 
of the two species ; the kassar being a small slight animal, 
by no means formidable in his appearance, with hands 
and feet proportioned to the body, and they do not ap- 
proach the gigantic extremities of the pappan either in 
size or power; a moderately strong man would readily 
overpower one, when he would not stand a chance with 
the pappan. 

I saw a young Orang. It had a very small and very 
rotund body, to which were affixed very long and slender 
limbs. Its face was like that of an old miser, thoroughly 
wearied of life, and contemplating surrounding objects 
with a calm but derisive pity. 

It possessed in a high degree the expressive mobile 
character of the lips, which appeared to express its feel- 
ings much in the same manner as do the ears of a horse. 
When it was alarmed or astonished at any object it was 



KAHAV. 15 

accustomed to shoot out both its lips, and to form its 
mouth into a trumpet kind of shape. A snail would make 
him produce this contortion of countenance. 

The creature was very tame, and delighted in walking 
about the garden leaning on the arm of its keeper, and if 
any lady would venture to be its guide, it appeared 
exceedingly happy. 

When young the Orang is very docile, and has been 
taught to make its own bed, and to handle a cup and 
saucer, or a spoon, w T ith tolerable propriety. It not only 
laid its own bedclothes smooth and comfortable, but ex- 
hibited much ingenuity in stealing blankets from other 
beds, which it added to its own. A young Orang evinced 
extreme horror at the sight of a small tortoise, and, when 
the reptile was placed in its den, stood aghast in a terri- 
fied attitude, with its eyes intently fixed on the frightful 
object. 

The Agile Gibbox is a native of Sumatra. It derives 
its name of Agile from the wonderful activity it displays 
in launching itself through the air from branch to branch. 
One of these creatures sprang with the greatest ease 
through a distance of eighteen feet ; and w r hen apples or 
nuts were thrown to her while in the air, she would catch 
them without discontinuing her course. She kept up a 
succession of springs, hardly touching the branches in her 
progress, continually uttering a musical but almost deaf- 
ening cry. She was very tame and gentle, and w r ould 
permit herself to be caressed. The height of the Gibbon 
is about three feet, and the reach of the extended arms 
about six feet. There are several species of Gibbon. 

The Kahau, a native of Borneo, derives its name from 
the cry it utters, which is a repetition of the w r ord 
" Kahau." It is remarkable for the size and shape of its 
nose, and while leaping it holds that organ with its paws, 
apparently to guard it against the branches. 

Its length, from the head to the tip of the tail, is a little 



16 NATURAL HISTORY. 

over four feet, and its general color is a sandy red, relieved 
by yellow cheeks and a yellow stripe over the shoulders. 

Baboons are distinguished from the apes by their short 
tails. The Mandrill, the most conspicuous of the tribe, 
is a native of Guinea and Western Africa, and is chiefly 
remarkable for the vivid colors with which it is adorned. 
Its checks are of a brilliant blue, its muzzle of a bright 
scarlet, and a stripe of crimson runs along the center of 
its nose. These colors are agreeably contrasted by the 
purple hues of the hinder quarters. It lives in forests 
filled with brushwood, from which it makes incursions 
into the nearest villages, plundering them with impunity. 
On this account it is much dreaded by the natives, who 
feel themselves incapable of resisting its attacks. It is 
excessively ferocious, and easily excited to anger. 

The greenish -brown color of the hair of this and other 
monkeys is caused by the alternate bands of yellow and 
black, which exist on each hair. The brilliant colors re- 
ferred to above belong to the skin, and fade away entirely 
after death, becoming paler w 7 hen the animal is not in 
perfect health. 

The American Monkeys are found exclusively in South 
America, and are never seen north of Panama. Their 
tails are invariably long, and, in some genera, prehensile. 

The Coaita is one of the Spider Monkeys, so called 
from their long, slender limbs, and their method of pro- 
gressing among the branches. The tail seems to answer 
the purpose of a fifth hand, as it is capable of being used 
for every purpose to which the hand could be applied; 
indeed, the Spider Monkeys are said to use this member 
for hooking out objects where a hand could not be in- 
serted. The tail is of use in climbing among the branches 
of trees : they coil it round the boughs to lower or raise 
themselves, and often will suspend themselves entirely by 
it, and then by a more powerful impetus swing off to 
some distant branch. The habits of all the Spider Mon- 



COAITA. 



17 



keys are very similar. They are sensitive to cold, and 
when chilly wrap their tails about them, so that this useful 
organ answers the purpose of a boa as well as a hand. 




Baboox. 

The} 7 will also, when shot, fasten their tails so firmly on 
the branches that they remain suspended after death. The 
great length of their tails enables them to walk in the erect 
attitude better than most monkeys. In walking they cast 
their tails upwards as high as the shoulders, and then 

2 



18 NATURAL HISTORY. 

bend them over so as to form a counterbalance against the 
weight of the body, which is thrown very much forward 
in that and most other monkeys. The genus is called 
Ateles, or imperfect, because in most of the species the 
thumb is wanting. The Coaita inhabits Surinam and 
Guinea. 

The Howling Monkeys are larger and not so agile as 
the Spider Monkeys, and are chiefly remarkable for the 
peculiarity from which they derive their name. They 
possess an enlargement in the throat, composed of several 
valvular pouches, which apparatus renders their cry loud 
and mournful. They howl in concert at the rising and 
setting of the sun ; one monkey begins the cry, which is 
taken up by the rest, precisely as may be observed in 
a colony of rooks. They are in great request among the 
natives as articles of food, their slow habits rendering 
them an easy prey. 

The Ursine Howler is common in Brazil, where fifty 
have been seen on one tree. They travel in files, an old 
monkey taking the lead, and the others following in due 
order. They feed principally on leaves and fruit; the 
tail is prehensile. 

The Marmoset is a most interesting little creature. It 
is very sensitive to cold, and when in America is usually 
occupied in nestling among the materials for its bed, 
which it heaps up in one corner, and out of which it sel- 
dom entirely emerges. It will eat almost any article of 
food, but is fond of insects. It will also eat fruits. Its 
fondness for insects has been carried so far, that it has been 
known to pinch out the figures of beetles in entomological 
work, and swallow them. 

This little Monkey is also called the Ouistiti, from its 
peculiar whistling cry when alarmed or provoked. 

The Lemurs derive their name from their nocturnal 
habits and their noiseless movements. The Ruffled Le- 
mur is a native of Madagascar. It lives in the depths of 



SLEXDER LOEIS. 



19 



the forests, and only moves by night, the entire day being 
spent in sleep. Its food consists of fruits, insects and 




Marmosets. 



small birds, which latter it takes while they are sleeping. 
This is the largest of the Lemurs, being rather larger than 
a cat. 
The Slender Loris is a native of India, Ceylon, etc, 



20 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Like the Lemur, it seldom moves by day, but prowls 
about at night in search of food. No sooner does it spy a 
sleeping bird than it slowly advances until within reach ; 
then putting forward its paw with a motion slow and im- 
perceptible as the movement of the shadow on the dial, it 
gradually places its fingers over the devoted bird ; then, 
with a movement swifter than the eye can follow, it seizes 
its startled prey. 

BATS: WING-HANDED ANIMALS. 

We now arrive at the Bats. The usual food of Bats is 
insects, which they mostly capture on the wing, but some, 
as the Vampires, suck blood from other animals, and a 
few, as the Kalong, or Flying Fox, live upon fruits, and so 
devastate the mango crops that the natives are forced to 
cover them with bamboo baskets. Even the cocoa-nut is 
not secure from their depredations. 

The membrane of the Bat's wing is plentifully supplied 
with nerves, and is extremely sensitive, almost appearing 
to supply a sense independent of sight. Many Bats pos- 
sess a similar membrane on the nose, which is possibly 
used for the same purpose. 

The object of the elongation of the finger-joints is to 
give the animal the power of extending the wing mem- 
brane or folding it at pleasure. The thumb-joint has no 
part of the wing attached to it, but is left free, and is 
armed with a hook at the extremity, by means of which it 
is enabled to drag itself along in that singular vacillating 
hobble which constitutes a Bat's walk. 

There are five sub families of Bats, according to Gray, 
each tribe including many genera. The British Museum 
alone possesses eighty genera. 

The Vampire Bat is a native of South America, where 
it is very common, and held in some dread. It lives on 
the blood of animals, and sucks usually while its victim 



BAT. 



21 



sleeps. The extremities, where the blood flows freely, as 
the toe of a man, the ears of a horse, or the combs and 
wattles of fowls, are its favorite spots. When it has selected 




The Long-Eared Bat. 



a subject on which it intends to feed, it watches until 
the animal is fairly asleep. It then carefully fans its vic- 
tim with its wings while it bites a little hole in the ear or 



22 NATURAL HISTORY. 

shoulder, and through this small aperture, into which a 
pin's head would scarcely pass, it contrives to abstract suf- 
ficient blood to make a very ample meal. The wound is 
so small, and the Bat manages so adroitly, that the victim 
does not discover that anything has happened until the 
morning, when blood betrays the visit of the Vampire. 

The wound made by the bat's teeth is no larger than 
that made by a needle, and hardly penetrates the skin, so 
that the blood must be extracted by suction. There have 
been very different accounts of the Vampires from travel- 
ers, some denying that they suck blood at all, and others 
narrating circumstantially the injuries inflicted upon their 
own persons. The cause for these discrepancies is due to 
the constitution of the narrators, there being some persons 
whom a Vampire will not touch, while others are con- 
stantly victimized. The length of its body is six inches. 

The Long-eared Bat is found in most parts of Europe. 
It may be seen any warm evening flying about in search 
of insects, and uttering its peculiar shrill cry. The ears 
are about an inch and a half in length, and have a fold in 
them reaching almost to the lips. 

This Bat is very easily tamed, and will take flies and 
other insects from the hand. 

When the Long-eared Bat is suspended by its hinder 
claws, it assumes a most singular aspect. The beautiful 
long ears are tucked under its wings, which envelop great 
part of its body. The tragus, or pointed membrane visi- 
ble inside the ear, is then exposed, and appears to be the 
actual ear itself, giving the creature a totally different cast 
of character. 

QUADRUPEDS. 

The former sections have been characterized by the 
number and properties of the hands. In this section the 
hands have been modified into feet. At the head of the 
quadrupeds, or four-footed animals, are placed the car- 



LION. 23 

nivora, or flesh-eaters, and at the head of the carnivora, 
the Felidse, or cat kind are placed, as being the most per- 
fect and beautiful in that section. The Felidse all take 
their prey by creeping as near as they can without obser- 
vation, and then springing upon their victim, which sel- 
dom succeeds in making its escape, as the powerful claws 
and teeth of its enemy usually dash it insensible to the 
ground. The jaws of the Felidse are powerful, and their 
teeth long and sharp. Their claws are necessarily very 
long, curved and sharp, and to prevent them from being 
injured by coming into contact with the ground they are 
retracted, when not in use, into a sheath, which guards 
them and keeps them sharp. There are five claws on the 
fore-feet, and four on the hinder feet. The tongue is very 
rough, as may be proved by feeling the tongue of a cat. 
This roughness is occasioned by innumerable little hooks 
which cover the tongue, point backwards, and are used 
for the purpose of licking the flesh off the bones of their 
prey. The bristles of the mouth or whiskers are each 
connected with a large nerve, and are useful in indicating 
an obstacle when the animal prowls by night. Their eyes 
are adapted for nocturnal vision by the dilating power of 
the pupil, which expands so as to take in every ray of 
light. 

The Lion stands at the head of the wild beasts. His 
noble and dignified bearing, the terrific power compressed 
into his comparatively small frame, and the deep majesty 
of his voice, have gained for him the name of " king of 
beasts." The Lion inhabits Africa and certain parts of 
Arabia and Persia, and some parts of India. It varies in 
appearance according to the locality, but there is little 
doubt that there is but one species. 

The roar of the Lion is one of its chief peculiarities; the 
best description of it is in Gordon Cumming's Adventures : 

"One of the most striking things connected with the 
Lion is his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly 



24 NATURAL HISTORY. 

striking. It consists, at times, of a low, deep moaning, 
repeated five or six times, ending in faintly-audible sighs ; 
at other times he startles the forest with loud, deep-toned, 
solemn roars, repeated five or six times in quick succession, 
each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when 
his voice dies away in five or six low, muffled sounds, very 
much resembling distant thunder. At times a troop may 
be heard roaring in concert, one assuming the lead, and 
two, three, or four more regularly taking up their parts, 
like persons singing a catch." 

The opinion that Lions will not touch a dead animal is 
erroneous, as they were frequently shot by Gordon Cum- 
ining while devouring gnoos, etc., that had fallen by his 
rifle. Lions who have once tasted human flesh are most 
to be dreaded, as they will even venture to spring in 
among a company of men and seize their victim. They 
are called Man-eaters. 

The Lioness is much smaller than the Lion, and is desti- 
tute of the mane which is so great an ornament to her 
mate. As a rule she is more fierce and active than the 
male, especially before she has had cubs, or while she is 
suckling them. She has usually from two to four cubs at 
a time. They are beautiful, playful little things, and are 
slightly striped. They have no mane until about two 
years old. While her cubs are small the Lioness knows 
no fear, and will attack a company of men, or a herd of 
oxen, if they come too near her den. The cubs are re- 
markably heavy for their age. 

The Lion when young is easily tamed, and shows an 
attachment to its keeper. Those who have visited men- 
ageries will know what influence man may obtain over 
this powerful creature. 

There is one remarkable difference in the characters of 
the feline and canine tribes. If a man is overcome by a 
wolf or dog, the animal mangles its foe until life is extinct. 
A dog killing a rat is a good instance of this trait of char- 




Lion and Lioness. 



(25) 



26 NATURAL HISTORY. 

acter. But if a lion or any other feline animal vanquishes 
a man it contents itself with the victory for some time 
without making any attempt to injure him, unless he tries 
to escape, in which case he is again dashed to the earth, 
and probably bitten as a warning. A cats treats a mouse 
as a lion treats a man. 

This propensity in the Lion has been the cause of saving 
many lives, the men having been able either to destroy 
their foe by cautiously getting out a weapon, or by lying 
still until they were succored. 

At the extremity of the Lion's tail there is a small hook 
or claw, which has been represented as the means by which 
the animal lashes itself into fury, using it as a spur. This 
is impossible, as the claw or prickle is very small, not fixed 
to the bone as the claws of the feet are, but merely attached 
to the skin, and falls off if roughly handled. It is not 
present in all lions. 

The Tiger is a magnificent animal, found only in Asia, 
Hindostan being the part most infested by it. In size it is 
almost equal to the Lion, its height being nearly four feet, 
and its length rather more than eight feet. It has no mane, 
but is decorated with black stripes, upon a ground of red- 
dish-yellow fur, which becomes almost white on the under 
parts of the body. The chase of the Tiger is a favorite 
sport in India. The hunters assemble, mounted on ele- 
phants trained to the sport, and carry with them a supply 
of loaded rifles in their carriages mounted on the elephants' 
backs. Thus armed, they proceed to the spot where a 
tiger has been seen. The animal is iusually found hidden 
in the long grass or jungle, which is frequently eight or 
more feet in height, and when roused it endeavors to creep 
away under the grass. The movement of the leaves betrays 
him, and he is checked by a rifle-ball aimed at him through 
the jungle. Finding that he cannot escape without being 
seen, he turns round and springs at the nearest elephant, 
endeavoring to cLamber up it and attack the party. This 



28 NATURAL HISTORY. 

is the dangerous part of the proceedings, as many ele- 
phants will turn round and run away, despite the efforts 
of their drivers to make them face the Tiger. Should the 
elephant stand firm a well-directed ball checks the tiger 
in his spring, and he then endeavors again to escape, but 
a volley of rifle-balls from the backs of the other elephants, 
who by this time have come up, lays the savage animal 
prostrate, and in a very short time his skin decorates the 
successful marksman's carriage. 

Tigers are usually taken in pitfalls at the bottom ot 
which is planted a bamboo stake, the top of which is 
sharpened into a point. The animal falls on the point, 
and is impaled. Tigers can be tamed as easily as the 
lion ; but great caution must be used with all wild ani- 
mals, as in a moment of irritation their savage nature 
breaks out, and the consequences have more than once 
proved fatal. 

The coloring of the tiger is a good instance of the man- 
ner in which animals are protected by the similarity of 
their external appearance to the particular locality in 
which they reside. The stripes on the tiger's skin so 
exactly resemble the long jungle-grass among which it 
lives that it is impossible for unpracticed eyes to discern 
the animal at all, even when the body is exposed. 

The Leopard is an inhabitant of Africa, India and the 
Indian Islands. A black variety inhabits Java, and is not 
uncommon there. Its height is about two feet. This and 
the following Felidse are accustomed to live much on trees, 
and are on that account called Tree-tigers by the natives. 
Nothing can be more beautiful than the elegant and active 
manner in which the Leopards sport among the branches 
of the trees : at one time they will bound from branch to 
branch with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow 
them ; then, as if tired, they will suddenly stretch them- 
selves along a branch, so as to be hardly distinguishable 
from the bark, but start up again on the slightest provoca- 



30 NATURAL HISTORY. 

tion, and again resume their graceful antics. It is easily 
tamed, and expresses great fondness for its keeper, and 
will play with him like a cat. 

It is fond of some scents, especially preferring lavender 
water, by means of which predilection it has been taught 
to perform several tricks. 

The Leopard and Panther are considered as the same 
animal. 

The Jaguar inhabits America. It is larger and more 
powerful than the leopard, which it resembles in color, 
but has a black streak across the chest, and a black spot 
in the center of the rosettes. It is fond of climbing trees, 
and finds little difficulty in ascending, even when the 
trunk is smooth and destitute of branches. It chases 
monkeys successfully, and is said to watch for turtles on 
the beach, and to scoop out their flesh by turning them on 
their backs and inserting its paws between the shells. 
Nor does it confine its attention to the turtles themselves, 
for it watches them lay their eggs and then scoops them 
out of the sand with its claws. It makes havoc among 
the sheepfolds, and is said to depart so far from the usual 
habits of the Felidse as to enter the water after fish, and to 
capture them in the shallows by striking them out of the 
water with a blow of its paw. The domestic cat has been 
seen to act in the same manner. 

When it captures one of the larger animals it destroys 
it by leaping upon its back and twisting the head of its 
prey round until the neck is dislocated. 

The Puma is found throughout South America and a 
great part of North America. It is known in Spanish 
American countries as the American lion, and in the 
United States as the catamount or wild-cat, and vulgarly 
as "painter" (a corruption of "panther"). The adult 
male is about five feet long, has a thick fur, brown above 
and grayish-white beneath, with the ears and tail nearly 
black, and sometimes partially striped along the sides. It 



PV1TA. 



31 



climbs trees and usually lies along the branches, where 
its uniform dusky fur renders it so like the bark that it 
can scarcely be distinguished from the branch. It lives 




The Puma. 

chiefly upon deer, and has a shrill scream ; is cowardly, 
and does not voluntarily attack man, but makes a desper- 
ate resistance to the hunter. It is easily tamed, and be- 
comes quite docile. 



32 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Ocelot, one of the Tiger-cats, is a native of Mexico 
and Peru. Its height is about eighteen inches, and its 
length about three feet. It is a beautiful animal, and 
easily tamed. When in a wild state it lives principally 
on monkeys, which it takes by stratagem. 

The domestic Cat was formerly supposed to be the same 
animal as the Wild Cat, but it is now proved to be a dis- 
tinct species, and the difference is seen at once by the 
form of the tail. That of the domestic Cat is long and 
taper, while that of the wild cat is bushy and short. 

The Cat is known to us as a persevering mouse-hunter. 
So strong is the passion for hunting in the breast of the 
Cat that she has been known to chase hares. 

This instinctive desire of hunting seems to be implanted 
in cats at a very early age. I have seen kittens, but just 
able to see, bristle up at the touch of a mouse, and growl 
in a terrific manner if disturbed. 

The Cat displays great affection for her kittens, and her 
pride when they first run about is amusing. 

Cats are very fond of aromatic plants. My own cat has 
just been discovered in the act of eating the green tops of 
a musk-plant that was standing in the window. Valerian 
appears to be the great attraction for cats, and where it is 
planted cats will come in numbers, roll over it, and scratch 
up the plant until there is not a vestige of it left. 

There are several varieties of the domestic cat, among 
which the Angora Cats, with their beautiful long fur, and 
the Manx Cats, which have no tails, are the most con- 
spicuous. 

The Lynxes are remarkable for the pencil of hairs which 
tufts their sharply pointed ears. The Canada Lynx is re- 
markable for its gait. Its method of progression is by 
bounds from all four feet at once, with the back arched. 
It feeds principally on hares, as it lacks courage to attack 
the larger quadrupeds. Its length is about three feet. 
The Indians sometimes eat its flesh, which is white and 



34 NATURAL HISTORY. 

firm, and not unlike that of the hare. Its skin forms an 
article of commerce. 

The Chetah, or Hunting Leopard, as it is sometimes 
called, is one of the most elegant and graceful animals 
known. It is a native both of Africa and India, but it is 
only in the latter country that it is used for hunting game. 
The method of employing it is as follows : The Chetah is 
usually blindfolded and placed upon a cart, and taken as 
near as possible to the place where deer are feeding. When 
close enough, the hunter takes the band from its eyes and 
directs its head towards the game. Directly the Chetah 
sees the deer it creeps off the cart and makes towards 
them as rapidly and silently as it can, carefully availing 
itself of the cover of a bush or stone, precisely as a cat does 
when stealing after a bird. When it has succeeded in ap- 
proaching the unsuspecting herd, it makes two or three 
tremendous springs and fastens on the back of one unfor- 
tunate deer brings it to the ground, and waits until its 
keeper comes up, who induces it to leave its prey by a 
ladlefull of blood, which he takes care to have ready. The 
Chetah is then hooded and led back to his cart. It is so 
easily tamable and so gentle that it is frequently led for 
sale about the streets by a string. 

It is larger than the leopard, and differs from it in the 
length of its paws, its inability to climb trees, and the 
crispness of its fur. It is therefore placed in a different 
genus from the leopard. 

Hyenas are remarkable for their predatory, ferocious 
and cowardly habits. There are several Hyenas, the 
striped, the spotted and the villose, but as the habits of all 
are very similar only one will be mentioned. The hyenas, 
although very repulsive in appearance, are yet very use- 
ful, as they prowl in search of dead animals, and will de- 
vour them even when putrid, so that they act the same 
part among beasts that the vultures do among birds, and 
are equally uninviting in aspect. They not infrequently 



36 NATURAL HISTORY. 

dig up recently-interred corpses. Their jaws and teeth 
are exceedingly powerful, as they can crush the thigh- 
bone of an ox with little effort, and so great is the strain 
upon the bones by the exertions of these muscles that the 
vertebrce of the neck become anchylosed, that is, become 
united together, and the animal has a perpetual stiff neck 
in consequence. The skull, too, is very strong, and fur- 
nished with heavy ridges for the support of the muscles 
which move the jaw. 

Its hinder parts are very small, and give it a strange 
shambling appearance when walking. It is easily tamed, 
and even domesticated. 

The striped Hyena is found in many parts of Asia and 
Africa, where it is both a benefit and a pest, for when dead 
animals fail it the flocks and herds are ravaged, and even 
man does not always escape. 

The Civets are active little animals, averaging about 
two feet in length. The whole group is celebrated for the 
perfume which is secreted in a glandular pouch near the 
tail, and is of some importance in commerce. 

The Civet is only found in North Africa, especially in 
Abyssinia, where it takes up its abode on uncultivated 
and barren hills. It feeds upon birds and the smaller 
quadrupeds, which it takes by surprise. 

The Ichneumons, or Mangousts, well deserve their name 
of Creepers, for with their long bodies and snouts, their 
short limbs and slender tails, they insinuate themselves 
into every crevice in their way in search of their expected 
food. Few animals are more useful than the Ichneumons. 
Snakes, lizards, crocodiles' eggs, or even young crocodiles 
themselves, form their principal food, and their activity is 
so great that, when these sources fail, they are able to se- 
cure birds, and even seize upon the swift and wary lizards, 
which, when alarmed, dart off like streaks of green light 
glancing through the bushes. 



38 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Egyptian Ichneumon, or Pharaoh's Rat, as it is 
sometimes called, is a native of North Africa, and is often 
domesticated for the purpose of destroying the various 
snakes and other reptile annoyances which are such a 
pest in the houses of hot countries. Its length without the 
tail is about eighteen inches. 

The Dog Family includes Dogs, Wolves, Jackals and 
Foxes. The first of the Dogs is the Kolsun or Dhale, 
which inhabits Bombay and Nepaul. It hunts in packs, 
as most of the dogs do even in a wild state, and has been 
known to destroy tigers and chetahs. The Newfound- 
land Dog is a magnificent creature, and was originally 
brought from Newfoundland. It is often confounded with 
the Labrador Dog, a larger and more powerful animal. 
Both these dogs are trained by their native masters to 
draw sledges and little carriages, and on that account are 
highly esteemed. The Newfoundland is well known as a 
faithful guardian of its master's property. It is fond of 
the water, and will fetch out any article that its master in- 
dicates and lay it at his feet. Many instances are known 
of this noble animal saving the lives of people that have 
fallen into the water, and must have perished but for its 
timely aid. 

It is one of the largest of the dogs, standing nearly 
twenty-six inches in height. 

The Bloodhound, of which there are several varieties, 
inhabits Cuba, Africa and England. They are all en- 
dowed with a wonderfully acute sense of smell, and can 
trace a man or animal with almost unerring certainty. 
The Cuban Bloodhound was employed by the Spaniards 
to hunt down the natives while endeavoring to escape 
from their invasions. 

The Foxhound and Beagle are not very dissimilar in 
form or in habits. They both follow game by the scent, 
and are used in hunting. The Foxhound, as its name 



40 NATURAL HISTORY. 

implies, is used for hunting the fox, and enters into the 
sport with great eagerness. Its height is about twenty-two 
inches. 

The Beagle is used principally for hare-hunting. It is 
much smaller than the Foxhound, and not nearly so swift, 
but its scent is so perfect that it follows every track of the 
flying hare, unravels all her windings, and seldom fails to 
secure her at last. Sportsmen usually prefer the smallest 
beagles obtainable. The most valuable pack of these dogs 
known used to be carried to and from the field in a pair 
of panniers slung across a horse's back. It is a common 
custom in the military schools, and at the universities, to 
follow the beagle on foot. There is a society near London 
who thus hunt on foot. As too much time would be lost 
in looking for a living hare, a dead rabbit is trailed along 
the ground, and as its fur has been rubbed with aniseed, 
the dogs can follow it easily. 

The Pointer is used by sportsmen to point out the spot 
where the game lies. It ranges the fields until it scents 
the hare or partridge lying close on the ground. It then 
remains still, as if carved in stone, every limb fixed, and 
the tail pointing straight behind it. In this attitude it 
remains until the gun is discharged, reloaded, and the 
sportsman has reached the place where the bird sprang. 

The Mastiff is distinguished by the shortness of the 
nose and the breadth of the head. This group includes 
the mastiff, the bull-dog and the absurd little pug-dog. 
The breadth of their heads is caused by the large muscles 
which move the jaw. 

The Mastiff is generally employed as a house-dog, as 
its powerful frame and deep voice are well fitted to scare 
away marauders or to repel them if they approach too 
near. It is the most sagacious of the whole group, and 
exhibits more attachment to its master than the others. 

The Bull-dog is proverbial for courage and endurance, 
but its social qualities are by no means pleasing. Al- 




Dogs. 



(41) 



42 NATURAL HISTORY. 

though it has some attachment for its master, yet it is not 
always safe even for him to disturb it. This dog was ex- 
tensively used in the cruel sport of bull-baiting, a recrea- 
tion now extinct. When opposed to the bull the dog 
would fly at its nose, and there hang in spite of all the 
infuriated animal's struggles. 

The Terriers never grow to any considerable size. 
There are several breeds, the English and Scotch being 
the most conspicuous. These dogs are principally used 
for destroying rats or other vermin, and are so courageous 
that they do not hesitate to unearth the fox or the badger. 
Otters are also hunted by them, but prove by no means 
an easy prey. Terriers are extremely attached to their 
masters, and are capable of learning many tricks. 

The Shepherd's dog is a rough, shaggy animal, with 
sharp-pointed ears and nose. It is an invaluable assist- 
ant, never suffering the sheep to stray, and when two flocks 
have mixed it will separate its own charge with the great- 
est certainty. It understands every look and gesture of 
its master, and drives the flock to any place which he 
points out. 

The Greyhound is the swiftest of all dogs, and is prin- 
cipally used in the pursuit of the hare. It has but little 
delicacy of scent, and hunts almost entirely by sight. The 
hare endeavors to baffle it by making sharp turns, which 
the dog cannot do on account of its superior size, and has 
therefore to take a circuit, during which the hare makes 
off in another direction. The hare also has the property 
of stopping almost instantaneously when at full speed. It 
puts this manoeuvre into force when it is nearing its favor- 
ite hiding-place. It induces the dog to spring upon it, 
and then suddenly checks itself. The dog is carried twenty 
feet by its own momentum, and the hare springs to her 
place of refuge. 

Wolf. — The Wolf looks much like a large, shaggy dog, 
and it has been thought by many that the first dogs 



WOLF. 



43 



sprung from "Wolves. When taken young the Wolf may 
be tamed, and it shows as much love for its master as the 
dog does. The Wolf is very swift, and hunts deer and 




Wolf. 

other animals in pairs. It is sly and stealthy, and often 
prowls about lonely farms to catch stray sheep, calves, 
pigs or fowls, but is also cowardly, and is easily frightened 
off by the barking of a dog or the sound of a gun. But 



44 NATURAL HISTORY. 

when pressed by hunger' it becomes dangerous, and will 
attack horses and oxen, and even men. In hard winters 
packs of hungry Wolves come down from the forests of 
the Alps and other mountains in Europe and commit 
great ravages ; and many terrible stories have been told 
of travellers who have been chased by them in great for- 
ests, especially in Russia and Siberia. In one case a man 
and his wife, who were riding in a sleigh through the 
woods, were so hard pressed by Wolves that they saved 
themselves only by throwing out their children, one by 
one, to be devoured by the hungry beasts. It is said that 
in Russia more than two hundred human beings are killed 
by Wolves every year, and a great many thousands of 
cattle and sheep. 

The Gray Wolf, of North America, is usually gray 
above and yellowish-gray below, but is sometimes nearly 
white. It is three or four feet long, with a tail about a 
foot and a half long. Packs of these Wolves follow the 
buffalo herds on the Western plains, feeding on the sick 
and straggling ones. They also attack horses, and some- 
times men, when very hungry. They were once plentiful 
in New England, but now only a few are found in moun- 
tains and thickly-wooded parts. 

The Indians catch many Gray Wolves in traps, and 
also kill many by surrounding them in a circle, which 
they make smaller, little by little, until they get near 
enough to shoot them. 

The Prairie Wolf, which the Mexicans call Coyote, is 
smaller than the Gray Wolf, and is much like the Jackal. 
The true Wolf has a howl like that of a dog, but the 
Prairie Wolf has only a kind of snapping bark, whence 
it is sometimes called the Barking Wolf. It lives in bur- 
rows on the great Western plains, is very swift, and hunts 
in packs. 

The Fox, this terror of hen-roosts and delight of sports- 
men, is found in many parts of America and many other 




c 
< 



46 NATURAL HISTORY. 

countries. It varies very much in color and size, accord- 
ing to the country where it lives. 

The habits of this animal are mostly nocturnal. It lies 
by day concealed in its burrow ; but towards evening it 
sallies out in search of food, and woe to the hare, rabbit, 
pheasant or fowl that comes in its way ! 

Sometimes he steals into the hen-roost, destroys and 
carries off most of its inmates, some of which he devours 
on the spot, others he carries home, and the remainder he 
buries for a future repast. 

When irritated the Fox gives out a strong, disagreeable 
scent, which lies so long on the ground that it may be per- 
ceived for nearly an hour after the Fox has passed. Partly 
on this account, and partly on account of its speed, endur- 
ance and cunning, the chase of the Fox is a favorite sport. 

Weasels are easily distinguished by their long, slender 
bodies, short muzzle, sharp teeth and predatory habits. 
They inhabit almost every part of the world, and procure 
their food by creeping on the unsuspecting victim, gen- 
erally a rabbit, rat or bird, and then suddenly darting at it 
and piercing its neck with their sharp teeth. Almost all 
the Weasels devour the brain and suck the blood of their 
prey, but seldom touch the flesh, unless they are pressed 
by hunger. 

There are two kinds of Martens, named, from their 
favorite haunts, the Pine and the Beech Marten. The 
Pine is common in North America, where it is much too 
fond of chickens and ducklings to be a desirable neighbor. 
This animal, as well as the Sable, is much sought after on 
account of its skin, which furnishes a beautiful fur, not 
much inferior to that of the Sable. 

The Stoat, or Ermine, is another common animal. It 
is smaller than the polecat, but its habits are scarcely less 
predaceous. Hares and rabbits fall easy victims to their 
little enemy, who dispatches them with a single bite, pene- 




. 






48 NATURAL HISTORY. 

trating the brain. During the winter the Stoat becomes 
partially white, in northern countries wholly so, except 
the tip of the tail, which remains black. In this state it is 
called the Ermine, and is killed in great numbers for the 
sake of its valuable fur. 

The Weasel is the least of this tribe. It is very useful 
to farmers, as it wages war on rats and mice, and extir- 
pates them from a barn or stack. It hunts by scent like 
dogs, and tracks the unfortunate rat with the most deadly 
certainty. It is a courageous little animal, and will even 
attack men, who have found it by no means a despicable 
antagonist, as its instinct invariably leads it to dash at 
the throat, where a bite from its long sharp teeth would be 
very dangerous. 

The Badger. — This harmless and much injured animal 
(which is often subjected to such ill-treatment that the term 
u badgering " a person is used to express irritating him in 
every possible way) lives at the bottom of deep burrows 
which it excavates, and in which it passes all the day, 
sleeping on 'a bed of hay and grass. When the evening 
approaches it seeks its food, consisting of roots, fruit, in- 
sects, and sometimes young rabbits. It is also said to at- 
tack the wild bee, and boldly to devour the honey-combs, 
its thick hair and skin rendering it utterly regardless of 
the stings of the enraged bees. 

The power of the Badger's bite is caused by the manner 
in which the under jaw is set on. Not only are its teeth 
sharp, and the leverage of its jaw powerful, but the jaw is 
so contrived that when the creature closes its mouth the 
jaws lock together as it were, and are held fast without 
much exertion on the part of the Badger. 

Its skin is rather valuable, the hair being employed in 
the manufacture of brushes, and its fur being in some re- 
quest for holsters. The length of the Badger is 27 inches. 

The Otter seems to play the same part in the water as 
the Polecat and the other weasels on the land. Like the 




The Grizzly Bear. 
4 



C49) 



50 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Polecat it is rapacious, and destroys many more creatures 
than it can devour ; and as the Polecat only eats the brain 
and sucks the blood, so the Otter daintily eats the flakes at 
the back of the fish's neck and leaves the remainder for less 
fastidious animals. 

It slides noiselessly into the water, turns and twists 
about below the surface with the same ease as a fish, then, 
with a graceful sweep of the body, it glides to the surface 
and ascends the bank with almost the same motion. 
While below the surface it bears a great resemblance to the 
seal, the method in which it disposes its hind-feet greatly 
assisting the effect. Its rapid and easy movements in the 
water are mostly performed by the assistance of its pow- 
erful tapering tail. 

The Otter is easily tamed, and is sometimes trained to 
catch fish and bring them to shore. 

The Hindoos have brought the art of Otter-training to 
great perfection, and keep their Otters regularly tethered 
with ropes and straw collars on the banks of the river. 

The Bears and their allies are mostly heavy, and walk 
with the whole foot placed flat on the ground, unlike the 
cats, dogs, etc., who walk with merely their paws or toes. 
All the Bears eat either animal or vegetable food, so that a 
leg of mutton, a pot of honey, a potato or an apple are 
equally acceptable. 

The Brown Bear inhabits the north of Europe, Switzer- 
land and the Pyrenees. It is hunted with much skill, and 
taken in traps and pitfalls. 

In the olden time the bear used to be baited, that is, tied 
to a pole, and several dogs were set at him, the object be- 
ing to see whether the bear could bite the dogs or the dogs 
bite the bear with the greater force. This cruel sport is 
now extinct, 

The Grizzly Bear is a native of North America. It is 
the most ferocious and powerful of its family, and is an 
animal which must either be avoided or fought, for there 




Polae Bears axd their Prey. 



(51 



52 NATURAL HISTORY. 

is no medium. If a Grizzly Bear once sees a man it will 
probably chase him, and will do so with great persever- 
ance. A traveller relates that he had been chased nearly 
thirty miles by one of these Bears, who would probably 
have kept up the chase as many miles more had he not 
crossed a wide river, over which the Bear did not choose 
to follow him. 

The Grizzly Bear is marvellously tenacious of life. It is 
said after a party of hunters have been combating one of 
these bears it is impossible to find four square inches of 
sound skin on the animal's body, a ball through the brain 
or heart affording the only means of safety to the hunter. 
It is rather singular that this Bear has the power of mov- 
ing each claw separately, as we move our fingers. It is 
able to overcome and carry off the enormous bison, and to 
dig a pit in which to bury it. 

The Polar, or White Bear, called Nennook by the 
Esquimaux, lives in the Arctic regions, where it feeds on 
seals, fish, and even the walrus, but it dares not attack the 
latter animal openly. It is a formidable antagonist either 
by land or water, as it dives with great ease and is able to 
chase the seal amid the waves. As the seals frequently 
crawl out of the water upon rocks or fragments of ice, the 
Polar Bear is forced to swim after them ; but lest they 
should observe him he makes his approaches by a suc- 
cession of dives, and contrives that the last dive brings 
him directly under the unsuspecting seal, who is imme- 
diately grasped and killed. These Bears are often drifted 
from Greenland to Iceland on fields of ice, and they find 
the flocks and herds so very delicious after a long course 
of seal diet that the inhabitants are forced to rise in a body 
and put an end to their depredations. 

To give this animal, who is constantly running over 
fields of ice, a firm footing the soles of its feet are thickly 
covered with long hair. 

The Raccoon is an animal about the size of a large fox, 




msm 



54 NATURAL HISTORY. 

and inhabits Canada and parts of America. It is said to 
wash its food before eating it. Its skin is valuable, and 
much sought after. 

The food of the Raccoon is principally small animals 
and insects. Oysters are also a very favorite article of its 
diet. It bites off the hinge of the oyster and scrapes out 
the animal in fragments with its paws. Like a squirrel 
when eating a nut, the Raccoon usually holds its food be- 
tween its fore paws pressed together, and sits upon its 
hind-quarters while it eats. Poultry are favorite objects 
of its attack, and it is said to be as destructive in a farm- 
yard as any Fox, for it only devours the heads of the mur- 
dered fowl. Like the Fox, it prowds by night. 

When taken young it is easily tamed, but very fre- 
quently becomes blind soon after its capture. This effect 
is supposed to be produced by the sensitive state of its 
eyes, w f hich are only intended to be used by night ; but 
as it is frequently awakened by daylight during its cap- 
tivity, it suffers so much from the unusual glare, that its 
eyes gradually lose their sight. 

Many ridiculous stories of the Mole and its habits are 
told. It is said to be deprived of eyes, to undergo un- 
heard-of tortures in forcing its way through the earth, 
and to spend a life of misery in damp and darkness. 
But so far from being a miserable animal, the Mole seems 
to enjoy its life quite as much as any other creature. 
It is beautifully fitted for the station which it fills, and 
would be unhappy if removed from its accustomed damp 
and darkness into w-armth and light. 

Its eyes are very small, in order to prevent them from 
being injured by the earth through which the animal 
makes its way; indeed, larger eyes would be useless un- 
derground. When, however, the Mole requires to use its 
eyes, it can bring them forward from the mass of fur 
which conceals and protects them when not in use. The 
acute ears and delicate sense of smell supply the place of 




urn 



56 NATURAL HISTORY. 

eyes. Its fur is very fine, soft, capable of turning in any 
direction, and will not retain a particle of mold. But the 
most extraordinary part of the Mole is the paw or hand 
with which it digs. The two fore-paws are composed of 
five fingers, armed with sharp, strong nails, in order to 
scrape up the earth ; and to prevent the accumulated 
mold, from impeding the mole's progress, the hands are 
turned outwardly, so as to throw the earth out of its way. 

The Mole is a most voracious animal, and is incapable 
of sustaining even a slight fast. Its principal food is the 
earth-worm, in chase of which it drives its long galleries 
underground ; but it also will eat insects, bits of meat, and 
is said sometimes to catch birds, which it takes by sur- 
prise, and then rapidly tears to pieces with its powerful 
claws. This ravenous appetite causes it to suffer from 
thirst if a supply of water is not at hand. For this reason 
the Mole always makes a tunnel towards a pond or brook, 
if there is one near. If no water is near, it digs a number 
of little wells, which receive the rain or dew, and enable 
it to quench its thirst. It is a good swimmer, and can 
pass from bank to bank, or from the shore to an island, 
and when the fields are inundated by floods it can save 
itself by swimming. 

The construction of the Mole's habitation is very sin- 
gular and interesting. Each Mole has its own habitation 
and hunting-ground, and will not permit strangers to tres- 
pass upon its preserves, which it guards by its claws and 
teeth. 

Its passion for work, i.e., search after its food, has some- 
thing fierce in it. The animal works desperately for sev- 
eral hours, and then rests for as many hours. Its mode 
of burrowing is by rooting up the earth with its snout, and 
then scooping it away with its fore-feet. The depth at 
which this animal works depends almost entirely on the 
time of year. In the summer the worms come to the sur- 
face, and the Mole accordingly follows them, making quite 



SHREW MOUSE. 57 

superficial runs, and sometimes only scooping trenches on 
the surface. But in the winter, when the worms sink 
deep into the ground, the Mole is forced to follow them 
there, and as it cannot fast above an hour or two, it is 
forced to work at the hard and heavy soil as it did in the 
light earth nearer the surface. 

Moles vary in color, the usual tint being a very deep 
brown, almost black, but they have been seen of an orange 
color, and a white variety is not uncommon. I have a 
cream colored skin in my possession. There are several 
Moles known — the Shrew Mole, the Changeable Mole, the 
Cape Mole, and the Star-nosed Mole, are the most con- 
spicuous. 

The Shrew Mouse is very like the Common Mouse, but 
is easily distinguished from it by the length of the nose, 
which is used for grubbing up the earth in search of earth- 
worms and insects. 

The Shrew has no connection with the true mice. It 
belongs to an entirely different class of animals, its teeth 
being sharp and pointed, while those of the Mouse are 
broad and chisel-shaped, like the teeth of the rabbit. A 
peculiar scent is diffused from these animals, which is 
possibly the reason why the cat will not eat them, although 
she will readily destroy them. 

Many species of Shrews are known, inhabiting various 
countries. There are, besides the common species, the 
Oared and the Water Shrew. The formation of their hair 
as seen under a microscope is very beautiful, but quite 
distinct from the hair of the Mouse or Rat. In the autumn, 
numbers of these little animals may be seen lying dead, 
but what causes this destruction is not known. 

This is one of the numerous animals that have suffered 
by false reports, and have been treated with great cruelty 
on account of those fables. Rustics formerly believed that 
the poor little harmless creature paralyzed their cattle by 
running over them, and that the only way to cure the dis- 



58 NATURAL HISTORY. 

eased animal was to place a bough of shrew-ash on the 
injured part. A Shrew cut in half and placed on a wound 
supposed to be caused by its bite was considered a 
remedy. 

The Hedgehog is one of the remarkable animals that is 
guarded with spikes. These spikes are fixed into the skin 
in a very beautiful and simple manner. When annoyed 
it rolls itself up, and the tightness of the skin causes all 
its spines to stand firm and erect, bidding defiance to an 
unprotected hand. While rolled up, even the dog and the 
fox are baffled by it; but their ingenuity enables them to 
overcome the difficulty by rolling it along until they push 
it into a puddle or pool, when the astonished Hedgehog 
unrolls itself to see what is the matter, and before it can 
close itself again is seized by its crafty enemy. 

Its food consists of insects, snails, frogs, mice and snakes. 
Buckland placed a snake in the same box with the Hedge- 
hog. The Hedgehog gave the snake a severe bite, and then 
rolled itself up, this process being repeated until the spine 
of the snake was broken in several places; it then began 
at the tail and ate the snake gradually, as one would eat 
a radish. It has been known to bore down and eat the 
roots of the plantain, leaving the leaves and the stem un- 
touched. 

The flesh of the Hedgehog is said to be good eating, and 
the gypsies frequently make it a part of their diet, as do 
the people in some parts of France and Belgium. 

During the winter it lives in a torpid state, in a hole 
well lined with grass and moss, and when discovered 
looks like a round mass of leaves, as it has rolled itself 
among the fallen foliage, which adheres to its spikes. 
The quill is, as it were, pinned through the skin and re- 
tained by the head. The curvature is such, that when the 
animal contracts itself the quills are drawn upright, and 
form a strong and elastic covering, useful for more pur- 
poses than merely defense from foes. The Hedgehog has 



KAXGAROO. 



59 



been known to throw itself boldly from a considerable 
height, trusting to the elasticity of the spring for breaking 







Common Hedgehog. 



its fall. When the spines are upright the shock of the 
fall would not tend to drive the end of the quill upon the 
animal, but merely 
spend its force upon 
the elasticity of the 
curved portion. 

The Kangaroo. In 
the Mole we saw that 
the power of the body 
was placed chiefly in 
the fore-legs ; we now 
come to a family 
which has the princi- 
pal power placed in 

the hinder-part of the body. In the Kangaroos the hind- 
legs are very lone and immensely powerful ; the fore-legs 
are very small, and used more as hands than for walking ; 
the tail also is very thick and strong, and assists the ani- 
mal in its leaps. 

The Great Kangaroo inhabits Australia. Its singular 




Hedgehog axd Young. 



60 NATURAL HISTORY. 

formation, peculiarly adapted to the country, calls forth a 
corresponding degree of ingenuity on the part of the na- 
tives, who live much on its flesh. Its method of progres- 
sion is by immense leaps from its long hind-legs. 

The natural walking position of this animal is on all 
four legs, although it constantly sits up on the hinder-legs, 
or even stands on a tripod composed of its feet and tail, in 
order to look out over the tops of the grass among which 
it lives. The leaping movements are required for haste 
or escape, the length of each leap being about fifteen feet. 

Hunting this animal is a favorite sport. The natives 
either knock it down with the boomerang, spear it from 
behind a bush, or unite together and hem in a herd, which 
soon fall victims to the volley of clubs, spears and boomer- 
angs which pour in on all sides. The colonists either 
shoot it or hunt it with dogs, a pack of which is trained 
for the purpose just as we train fox-hounds. The "old 
man," or " boomer," as the colonists call the Great Kan- 
garoo, invariably leads the dogs a severe chase, always at- 
tempting to reach water and escape by swimming. It is 
a formidable foe to the dogs when it stands at bay, as it 
seizes the dog with its fore legs, and either holds him un- 
der water until he is drowned, or tears him open with a 
well-directed kick of its powerful hind-feet, which are 
armed with a very sharp claw. 

The female Kangaroo carries its young about in a kind 
of pouch, from which they emerge when they wish for a 
little exercise, and leap back again on the slightest alarm. 
All the Kangaroos and the Opossums have this pouch. 

The length of the Great Kangaroo is about five feet, 
without the tail, the length of which is about three feet. 

There are many species of Kangaroo, the most extraor- 
dinary being the Tree Kangaroo, which can hop about on 
trees, and has curved claws on its fore-paws, like those of 
the Sloth, to enable it to hold on the branches. 

The Opossum inhabits North and South America, and is 




62 NATURAL HISTORY. 

hunted with almost as much perseverance as the Raccoon, 
not, however, for the sake of its fur, but of its flesh. When 
it perceives the hunter, it lies still between the branches, 
but if disturbed from its hiding-place, it attempts to escape 
by dropping among the herbage and creeping away. 

Its food consists of insects, birds, eggs, etc., and it is 
very destructive among the hen-roosts. The Opossum 
uses its tail for climbing and swinging from branch to 
branch, as the Spider-Monkeys use theirs, but the Opos- 
sum uses its tail in a manner that the Monkeys have never 
yet been observed to do, that is, making it a support for its 
young, who sit on its back and twist their tails round their 
mother's in order to prevent them from falling off. 

It is a most crafty animal, and when overtaken by its 
pursuers can simulate death so admirably that it fre- 
quently deceives the foe, and quietly makes its escape. 

The length of the Opossum is about twenty-two inches, 
and its height about that of an ordinary cat. When dis- 
turbed or alarmed, it gives out a very unpleasant odor. 
The name Opossum is derived from the Indians. 

The Seals and Whales, although they are truly mam- 
malia, are inhabitants of the water, and specially formed 
for an aquatic existence. 

The fore- feet of the seal are used as fins, and the two 
hinder-feet almost as the tail of a fish, to assist and direct 
its course. On land its movements are very clumsy ; it 
shuffles along by means of its fore-feet, or rather paddles, 
and drags its hind-feet after it. 

Seals live during warm weather mostly in the cold re- 
gions of the north and south poles, and go into milder 
waters in the winter. Their food is chiefly fish, and they 
sometimes chase salmon quite far up rivers. They like 
to bask in the sun upon rocks, sand-banks or ice-floes, 
always keeping a good lookout for danger. They can see 
far, and their sense of smell is very sharp. 



64 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Seals mostly live on mollusks, crabs and fish. In the 
winter they make holes in the ice, where they can come 
up to breathe. Sometimes one comes out to eat a fish. 
The Esquimaux watch near seal holes until one is seen 
coming up, then crawl softly along on the ice, making a 
cry like a seal, and the poor animal, who takes it for an- 
other seal, does not discover its mistake until it gets a 
deadly blow. 

Seals are among the most useful of animals to man. The 
Greenlanders use their flesh for food; their oil for light, 
warmth and cooking ; their skins for clothes, boots and 
coverings of boats and tents ; their sinews for thread and 
fishing lines ; the skins of the entrails for window-curtains 
and shirts, and their blood for making soup. Seal-skins 
are an important article of commerce, and the seal-fishery 
is largely carried on along the coast of Newfoundland and 
Labrador, and also on the islands off the coast of Alaska. 
The fur in its natural state is yellowish, spotted and 
marked with brown, and is unfit for use until it is dyed. 
Dressed seal-skins are largely used for ladies' cloaks, 
capes, etc. The skins are tanned sometimes and made 
into a fine soft leather for pocketbooks, card-cases and 
other things. Seal-oil, made from the blubber of fat, is 
more valuable than whale-oil. 

The length of the Common Seal is about five feet, and 
its weight often over 200 pounds. When surprised bask- 
ing on the shore, it scrambles off towards the water, but 
if intercepted, dashes at its antagonist, oversets him if pos- 
sible, and makes its escape as fast as it can. 

There are many Seals known, among which are the Sea 
Leopard, a spotted species ; the Harp Seal, so called be- 
cause the markings on its back resemble a lyre ; the Sea 
Bear and the Sea Lion. 

The Walrus inhabits the northern seas. Its most re- 
markable point is the great length of its upper canine 
teeth, which extend downwards for nearly two feel, and 



WALRUS. 



65 



resemble the tusks of the elephant They furnish very 
fine ivory, and are used by dentists in making artificial 
teeth, as teeth made from them remain white much longer 




Seals Swmmixg. 

than those made from the tusks of elephants. These 
tusks are used by the Walrus for climbing the rocks or 
heaps of ice, and also for digging up the seaweeds on which 
the animal mostly subsists. It will also eat shrimps and 
young seals. 

5 



66 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Walrus is hunted for the sake of its oil, its flesh, its 
skin and its teeth. It is generally found in troops, and if 
one is wounded, its companions rush to its rescue and at- 
tack the enemy with their sharp tusks, which they have 
been known to drive through the bottom of a boat. The 
length of the Walrus is about fifteen feet, and it yields 
about twenty-five gallons of excellent oil. 

The Whale tribe closely resemble the fishes, and have 
often been placed among these animals by naturalists. 
They, however, are distinguished by possessing warm 
blood, and, in consequence, being forced to rise at inter- 
vals in order to breathe the air, instead of separating .from 
the water, by means of their gills, sufficient oxygen for 
supporting life. 

Yet the Whale remains under water for a time so much 
longer than could be borne by any other warm-blooded 
animal, that the most indifferent observer cannot fail to 
perceive that the Whale is furnished with some plan for 
supporting life during its stay beneath the water. 

Along the interior of the ribs is a vast collection of 
blood-vessels, ramifying from one another and capable of 
containing a large quantity of blood, having no immediate 
connection with that portion of the blood which is already 
circulating in the body. As fast as the exhausted and 
poisonous blood returns from its work it passes into an- 
other reservoir adapted for its necessities, while a portion 
of the arterialized blood in the arterial reservoir passes into 
the circulation. It will be seen from this that the Whales, 
and others of the same order, possess more blood in pro- 
portion than any animals. By means of this wonderful 
apparatus a whale can remain below the water for more 
than half an hour at a time. 

The depths to which the Whale can descend are aston- 
ishing, wounded whales having been known to take 
down perpendicularly nearly 800 fathoms of line. The 
pressure of the water at this depth is very great, amount- 



WHALE. 



67 



ing, according to Scoresby's calculation, to 211,200 tons. 
This pressure would certainly cause the water to burst 




Wau&tjsses on the Ice. 

through their nostrils and enter the lungs, were it not 
that the nostrils are formed so as to close themselves more 
firmly as the pressure of water increases. 



68 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The great Greenland Whale is found in the Northern 
Oceans. Many ships are annually fitted out for the cap- 
ture of this creature, which furnishes oil and whalebone. 
The oil is obtained from the thick layer of fatty substance 
called blubber, which lies under the skin ; and the whale- 
bone — which, by the way, is not bone at all — is obtained 
from the interior of the mouth, where it fringes the jaws, 
and acts as a sieve for the Whale to strain his food through. 
The throat of the Greenland Whale is so small, that the 
sailors say that a penny loaf would choke a whale. The 
greater proportion of its food consists of a little creature, 
about an inch and a half long, called Clio borealis, one of 
the marine Mollusca, belonging to the class Pteropida, or 
wing-footed creatures, so called because it propels itself 
through the water with two wing-like organs. The Whale, 
when it wishes to feed, rushes through the water with its 
immense jaws wide open, inclosing a host of little sea ani- 
mals and a few hogsheads of water. As the Whale only 
wants the animals, and not the water, it shuts its mouth 
and drives all the water out through the fringes of whale- 
bone, leaving the little creatures in its jaws. 

The Whale shows great attachment to its young, which 
is called the cub, and on the approach of danger seizes it 
with its fin or flipper, and carries it down out of danger. 
The Whale has no fins, properly so called, as it is not a 
fish, but one of the mammalia. Its flippers, which supply 
the place of fins, are in fact fore-legs, furnished with a 
kind of hand covered with a thick skin. They seem to be 
principally employed in balancing the animal. The hind- 
legs are wanting. The length of this Whale averages sixty 
feet. Its tail is placed transversely, and not vertically, as 
in the fishes. 

The Spermaceti Whale is not furnished with " baleen," 
or whalebone, but is armed with a number of strong coni- 
cal teeth, which are placed in the lower jaw, and which 
are often used in defending itself from the attacks of the 



70 NATURAL HISTORY. 

whalers' boats. In the Oxford Museum is an under jaw- 
bone of this Whale, sixteen feet in length, containing forty- 
eight huge teeth. Besides this method of defense, it has a 
very unpleasant habit of swimming off to a distance, and 
then rushing at the boat with its head, thereby knocking 
it to pieces. One of these Whales actually sank a ship by 
three or four blows from its head. 

Spermaceti is obtained from the head of the Whale, and 
it is this substance that causes the immense size of the 
head. When killed, a hole is made in the upper part of 
the head, and the spermaceti is baled out with buckets. 
When just procured it is almost fluid, but is rendered 
solid and transparent by being first drained of its oil, then 
boiled in water, and lastly set to cool in wide pans, where 
it soon assumes the w T hite, flaky appearance so well known 
in this country. The skull occupies but a small portion 
of the head, the huge mass at the end of the mouth being 
composed of a gristly kind of substance. The bone of the 
upper jaw occupies about one-fourth of the distance be- 
tween the mouth and the top of the snout. It runs back- 
wards nearly straight until just before the eyes, when it 
joins the remainder of the skull with a bold sw^eep. That 
part of the skull is called " Neptune's Chair " by the sail- 
ors, and is the part where the spermaceti is found. The 
layer of blubber is thin, but yields a fine and valuable 
oil. Ambergris, so long a riddle to all inquirers, is now 
found to be produced in the interior of this Whale. This 
substance is of the consistency of wax, inflammable, and 
gives out a kind of musky odor. It was once in great re- 
pute as a medicine, but is now only used as a perfume. 

Although an inhabitant of the Arctic seas, it has some- 
times been found and captured off the English coasts. 
The length of this Wliale is about seventy feet. 

Those readers who have formed their ideas of Dolphins 
from the very graceful and elegant creatures represented 




fPfSP'WB 



72 NATURAL HISTORY. 

under that name in the pictures of the " old masters/' will 
find that the real animal differs greatly from the ideal. 
Almost the whole history of the Dolphin is imaginary — 
very poetical, but very untrue. Our Dolphin, when we 
have harpooned and brought him on deck, is only black 
and white, and all the change that he makes is that the 
black becomes brown in time, and the white changes to 
gray. 

The creature that really displays colors when dying is 
a fish called the Coryphene. The sailors generally call it 
the Dolphin, which has led to the mistake. The Dolphin 
is, like the Whale, a warm-blooded animal, suckles its 
young, and is forced to come to the surface in order to 
breathe. Its snout is very long, and is apparently used 
for capturing such fish and other animals as live in the 
mud. The length is from six to ten feet. Several species 
are known. 

Porpoises may be observed in plenty playing their ab- 
surd antics off every coast of America. They frequent the 
mouths of rivers, because they find more food there than 
in the open sea. They tumble at the surface of the water 
for the purpose of breathing. 

In the olden times, when glass windows were consid- 
ered a luxury, and rushes supplied the place of carpets, 
the flesh of the Porpoise constituted one of the delicacies 
of a feast, but it has long since been deposed from rank at 
the table. Its flesh has a very strong, oily flavor. 

The Porpoise feeds on various fishes, but its great feasts 
are held when the periodical shoals of herrings, pilchards, 
and other fish arrive on the coasts. In the pursuit of its 
prey, it frequently ventures some distance up a river, and 
is then often taken in nets by the fishermen. 

Its teeth are numerous, and interlock when the jaws are 
closed, so that the fish when once seized cannot escape. 
Its length is about five feet ; its color a rich black, be- 
coming white on the under side. 



EODEXTIA. 73 

The Narwhal unwittingly contributed to propagate a 
very old error. Its spiral tusk used to be sold as the real 
horn of the unicorn ; and as an accredited part of that 
animal, forming direct proof of its existence, it used to 
fetch a high price. When the Whale fishery was estab- 
lished, the real owner of the horn was discovered, and the 
unicorn left still enveloped in mystery. 

The Narwhal possesses two tusks, one on each side of its 
head. Only the left tusk projects, the other remaining 
within the head. Sometimes a specimen has been found 
with both tusks projecting, and some think that when the 
left tusk has been broken off by accident, the right one be- 
comes large enough to supply its place. Although an in- 
habitant of the northern seas, it has several times visited 
English coasts. Its body is from thirty to forty feet in 
length, and its tusk from five to nine. 

The Rodextia, or gnawing animals, are so called from 
their habit of gnawing through, or paring away, the sub- 
stances on which they feed. For this purpose their teeth 
are admirably formed, and by these teeth it is always 
easy to ascertain a member of the Rodents. They have 
none of those sharp teeth called canine, such as are seen 
in the Lions and in those animals which seize and destroy 
living animals, but in the front of each jaw there are two 
long, flat teeth, slightly curved, and having a kind of chisel- 
edge for rasping away wood or other articles. 

The constant labor which these teeth undergo would 
rapidly wear them away. To counteract this loss, the 
teeth are constantly growing and being pushed forward, 
so that as fast as the upper part is worn away the tooth is 
replenished from below. So constant is this increase that, 
when an unfortunate rabbit or other rodent has lost one 
of its incisors, the opposite one, meeting nothing to stop 
its progress, continually arrows, until sometimes the tooth 
curls upwards over the lips and prevents the wretched 
animal from eating, until it is gradually starved to death. 



74 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Brown Rat, sometimes called the Norway Rat, is 
the species usually found in England and America. It 
was imported into England and from thence here, and 
from its superior size, strength, and ferocity, has com- 
pletely established itself and expelled the original Black 
Rat. 

It is at all times difficult to get rid of these dirty, noisy 
animals, for they soon learn to keep out of the way of 
traps, and if they are poisoned they revenge their fate by 
dying behind a wainscot or under a plank of the floor, 
and make the room uninhabitable. There are, however, 
two ways recommended to attain the desired object: 

Place a saucer containing meal in a room frequented by 
Rats, letting them have free access to it for several days. 
They will then come to it in great force. When they have 
thus been accustomed to feed there regularly, mix a quan- 
tity of jalap with the meal, and put it in the accustomed 
place. This will give them such internal tortures that 
they will not come near the place again. 

A second plan is to mix phosphorus with the meal and 
make it into a ball. The phosphorus is said not to kill 
the Rats, bat to afflict them with such a parching thirst 
that they rush to the nearest water and die there. By this 
method the danger of their dying in the house is avoided. 

The Common Mouse is so well known that a description 
of its form and size is useless. It almost rivals the Rat in 
its attacks upon our provisions, and is quite as difficult to* 
extirpate. It brings up its young in a kind of nest, and 
when a board of long standing is taken up in a room, it is 
not uncommon to find under it a Mouse's nest, composed 
of rags, string, paper, shavings, and everything that the 
ingenious little architect can scrape together. It is a round 
mass, looking something like a rag ball very loosely made. 
When opened, seven or eight little mice will probably be 
found in the interior — little, pink, transparent creatures, 
sprawling about in a most unmeaning manner, apparently 



BE AVER. 75 

greatly distressed at the sudden cold caused by the open- 
ing of their nest. 

A white variety of Mouse is tolerably common, and is 
usually bred in cages. As it is very tame and beautiful, 
it is in some repute as a pet. 

The Harvest Mouse is very much smaller than the or- 
dinary mouse. Its nest is raised about a foot from the 
ground, and supported on two or three straws. It is 
made of grass, about the size of a cricket-ball, and very 
compact. 

The Water Rat is common on banks of rivers, brooks, 
etc. I have watched them feeding, and never saw them 
eating fish, nor found fish-bones inside their holes, except 
when a kingfisher had taken possession; but I have seen 
them gnawing the bark from reeds, which they completely 
strip, leaving the mark of each tooth as they proceed. 

Xorth America is the principal country w r here the 
Beaver is found, but it is also common on the Euphrates, 
and along the Rhone and the Danube. 

The houses of the Beaver are built of mud, stones, and 
sticks. They are placed in a stream, and their entrance is 
always below the surface. As a severe frost would freeze 
up their doors, it is necessary to make the stream deep 
enough to prevent the frost from reaching the entrances. 
This object is attained by building a dam across the river, 
to keep back the water until it is sufficiently deep for the 
Beaver's purposes. The dam is made of branches, which 
the Beaver cuts down with its strong, sharp teeth, and mud 
and stones worked in among the branches. The Beavers 
throw these branches into the water, and sink them to the 
bottom by means of stones, and by continually throwing 
in fresh supplies a strong embankment is soon made. 

As many Beavers live together in one society, the forma- 
tion of a dam does not take very long. By their united 
efforts they rapidly fell even large trees, by gnawing them 
round the trunk, and always take care to make them fall 



76 NATURAL HISTORY. 

towards the water, so that they can transport the logs 
easily. The mud and stones used in their embankments 
are not carried on their tails, as some say, nor do the 
Beavers use their tails as trowels for laying on the mud, 
the fact being that the stones and mud are carried between 
their chin and fore-paws, and the mistake respecting the 
tail is evidently caused by the slap that Beavers give with 
that member when they dive. In order that their pond 
may not be too deep they always leave an opening in the 
dam to let the water escape when it rises above a certain 
height. 

During the severe winter their mud-built houses freeze 
quite hard, and prevent the Wolverine,their greatest enemy, 
except man, from breaking through and devouring the in- 
mates. Every year the Beavers lay a fresh coating of mud 
upon their houses, so that after the lapse of a few years 
the walls of the house are several feet in thickness. Many 
of the houses are built close together, but no two families 
can communicate with each other except by diving below 
the walls and rising inside their neighbors' houses. 

When in captivity the Beaver soon becomes tame, and 
will industriously build dams across the corner of a room 
with brushes, boots, fire-irons, books, or anything it can 
find. When its edifice is finished, it sits in the centre, ap- 
parently satisfied that it has made a beautiful structure 
to dam up the river— a proof that the ingenuity of the 
Beaver is not caused by reason, but by instinct. 

Its fur consists of a fine wool intermixed with long and 
stiff hairs. The hairs are useless, but the peculiar con- 
struction of the fur causes it to penetrate and fix itself into 
the felt which forms the body of a hat. In making the 
hat, the only method required to fasten the fur into the felt 
is to knead the fur and felt together. The hair is toothed 
on its surfaces, and makes its way into the felt, just as an 
awn of barley will travel all over the body if placed up 
the sleeve. The length of the Beaver is about 3J feet. 




Beavers at Work. 



(77) 



78 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Porcupine is found in America, Africa, Tartary, 
Persia, India and some parts of Europe. It lives in holes 
which it digs in the ground, and only comes forth at night 
to feed. It eats vegetable substances only, such as roots, 
bark and other similar substances. The array of spines 
or quills with which this animal is covered forms its prin- 
cipal means of defense. If it cannot escape, it suddenly 
stops, erects all its quills and runs backwards against its 
adversary, striking the quills against him by the weight 
of its body. Occasionally a looser quill than usual re- 
mains in the wound or falls on the ground, which evi- 
dently gave rise to the foolish error that the Porcupine 
could dart its weapons at its adversary from a distance. 
There are two kinds of these quills — one kind long and 
curved, the other short, thick and pointed. These last are 
the weapons of defense, as the former are too slender to do 
much service. When it w T alks its quills make a kind of 
rustling sound, caused principally by those arranged on 
the tail, which are large, hollow, and supported on large, 
slender stalks. 

The Indians use the quills for ornamenting various parts 
of their dress, especially their moccasins or skin shoes. 
The length of the Porcupine is about two feet, and its 
spines or quills are from six to fourteen inches long. 

The Capybara is the largest of all the Rodentia. At 
first sight it looks very like a pig, and its skin is covered 
thinly with hairs like bristles, which add to. the resem- 
blance. It inhabits the borders of lakes and rivers in many 
parts of South America. During the day it hides among 
the thick herbage of the banks, only wandering forth to 
feed at night, but w T hen alarmed it instantly makes for the 
water, and escapes by diving. It is hunted for the sake 
of its flesh, which is said to be remarkably good. The 
food of the Capybara consists of grass, vegetables and 
fruits. Its length is about forty-two inches. 

The Guinea-pig was originally brought from South 



80 NATURAL HISTORY. 

America. Its beauty is its only recommendation, as it 
shows little intelligence and is never used for food. 
Children are fond of keeping them, as they are wonder- 
fully prolific, easy to manage and do not make much 
noise. They are supposed to keep off rats, and are there- 
fore patronized in connection with rabbit-hutches. 

The Hare is one of our most common quadrupeds. 
When full-grown it is larger than the Rabbit and exceed- 
ingly like that animal. But its color is slightly different, 
and the black spot on the extremity of its ears is a simple 
method of distinguishing it. It does not burrow like the 
Rabbit, but makes a kind of nest of grass and other mate- 
rials. In this nest, called a " form," the Hare lies, crouch- 
ing to the ground, its ears laid along its back, and trusting 
to its concealment, will often remain quiet until the foot 
of an intruder almost touches it. 

Innumerable foes besides man surround this animal. 
Foxes, ferrets, stoats and all their tribe are unmerciful 
enemies, and sometimes a large hawk will destroy a leveret, 
as the young Hare is called. Although destitute of all 
means of defense, it often escapes by the quickness of its 
hearing and sight, which give it timely warning of the 
approach of an enemy. 

In cold countries it changes its fur during winter, and 
becomes white, like the Arctic Fox and the Ermine. 

The Rabbit is smaller than the Hare, but closely re- 
sembles it in form. It lives in deep holes, which it digs 
in the ground. The female Rabbit forms a soft nest at the 
bottom of her burrow, composed of fur torn from her body, 
of hay and dried leaves. Here the young Rabbits are kept 
until they are strong enough to shift for themselves and 
make their own burrows. The tame Rabbit is only a 
variety rendered larger by careful feeding and attend- 
ance. 

The Gerboas are celebrated for their powers of leaping. 
Their long hind-legs enable them to take enormous springs, 



SQUIRREL. 81 

during which their tails serve to balance them. Indeed a 
Gerboa when deprived of his tail is afraid to leap. 

In the history of the Polar Bear it was mentioned that 
its feet were prevented from slipping on the ice by a coat- 
ing of thick hair. The foot of the Gerboa is defended in 
the same manner by long, bristly hairs, which gives the 
creature a firm hold of the ground for its spring, and also 
defends the foot from the burning soil on which it lives. 

It is very timid, and on the slightest alarm rushes to its 
burrow, but if intercepted skims away over the plain with 
such rapidity that it seems to fly, and when at full speed 
a swift greyhound can scarcely overtake it. 

Grain and bulbous roots are its chief food ; while eating 
it holds the food with its fore-paws and sits upright on its 
haunches, like the Squirrels and Marmots. 

The Dormouse is common in all the warmer parts of 
Europe. It lives in copses and among brushwood, through 
which it makes its way with such rapidity that it is very 
difficult to capture. During the winter it lies torpid, but 
takes care to have a stock of food laid up, on which it 
feeds during the few interruptions to its slumbers. A 
warm day in winter will usually rouse it, but during the 
cold weather it lies rolled up, with its tail curled round 
its body. While in this state a sudden exposure to heat 
kills it, but a gentle warmth, such as holding it in the 
hand, rouses it without injury. It lives principally on 
nuts, acorns and grain. It brings up its young in a nest 
composed of leaves and hay, and seems to be fond of 
society in its household labors, as ten or twelve nests have 
been seen close to each other. 

The Squirrel is a very common animal in woods, where 
numbers may be seen frisking about on the branches, or 
running up and down the trunks. If alarmed it springs 
up the tree and hides behind a branch. By this trick it 
escapes its enemy the hawk, and by constantly slipping 
behind the large branches, frequently tires him out. The 

6 



82 NA TURAL HISTOK Y. 

activity and daring of this little animal are extraordinary. 
When pursued it makes the most astonishing leaps from 
branch to branch, or from tree to tree, and has apparently 
some method of altering its direction while in the air, pos- 
sibly by means of its tail acting as a rudder. 

It is easily domesticated, and is very amusing in its 
habits when suffered to go at large in a room or kept in a 
spacious cage ; but when confined in one of the cruel 
wheel cages its energies and playfulness are quite lost. 
Men often go about with squirrels for sale, and generally 
cheat those who buy them. They try to sell old squirrels 
for young, but this imposition may be detected by look- 
ing at the teeth of the animal, which are nearly white if 
young, but if old are of a light yellow. The purchaser 
should beware of very tame and quiet squirrels. These 
are generally animals just caught and perfectly wild, but 
made sedate by a dose of opium. 

Its color is a deep reddish brown, and its tail so large 
and bushy as to shade its whole body when carried curled 
over its back. 

The Ruminanti, or those animals that chew the cud, 
include the oxen, sheep and goats, deer, giraffe and camels. 
They have a peculiar construction of stomach, which 
receives the freshly-gathered food, retains it for some 
hours, and then passes it back into the mouth to be re- 
masticated. 

The Ox is spread widely over the earth, scarcely any 
country being without its peculiar breed. In England, 
where it is the most useful domesticated animal, there are 
many breeds, generally distinguished by the length or 
shape of their horns. There is the (( long-horned breed," 
the " short-horned," the " middle-horned " and the 
" polled " or hornless breed. Each of these breeds has its 
peculiar value : some fatten easily, and are kept especially 
for the butcher; others give milk, and are valuable for the 
dairy. The best dairy cow is the Alderney, a small, short- 



bisox. 83 

horned animal, furnishing very rich milk. The Texas cat- 
tle are descended from Spanish stock. 

In some parts of America oxen are used to draw wagons, 
or to drag the plow. They are not so strong as horses, and 
their movements are much slower. 

Every part of the Ox is of value. We eat his flesh, we 
wear shoes soled with his skin, our candles are made from 
his fat, our tables are joined with glue made from his 
hoofs, his hair is mixed with the mortar of our walls, his 
horns are made into combs, knife-handles, drinking-cups, 
etc.. his bones are used as a cheap substitute for ivory and 
the fragments ground and scattered over the fields as ma- 
nure, and soup is made from his tail. 

The young Ox is called a calf, and is quite as useful in 
its way as the full-grown Ox. The flesh is termed veal, and 
by many preferred to the flesh of the Ox or Cow, which is 
called beef; jelly is made from its feet. The stomach is 
salted and dried, and is named rennet. Cheese is made 
by soaking a piece of rennet in water and pouring it into a 
vessel of milk. The milk soon forms a curd, w T hich is 
placed in a press, and the watery substance, called whey, 
squeezed from it. The curd is colored and salted, and is 
then cheese. 

The Cape Buffalo is a native of South Africa. It is ex- 
ceedingly ferocious and cunning, often lurking among the 
trees until an unsuspecting traveller approaches, and then 
rushing on him and destroying him. The ferocious creat- 
ure is not content with killing its victim, but stands over 
him, mangling him with its horns and stamping on him 
with its feet. 

The Bison is a native of Europe and North America. 
They have short horns, which are curved inward at the 
point. They are distinguished from the Ox by long woolly 
or shaggy hair, which covers the neck and shoulders of 
the males. 

The American Bison is known by the incorrect name of 



84 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Buffalo. This is the only species of the Ox family indige- 
nous to America, except the Musk Ox. It is similar to 
the European Bison, but the fore-parts are more shaggy, 
and it is a powerful and ferocious-looking animal, which 
no American beast can overcome or resist, except the 
Grizzly Bear. The color of its hair is mostly brown. In 
former years vast herds of Bisons roamed over the plains 
and prairies between the Mississippi River and the Rocky 
Mountains, feeding on grass and brushwood. They are 
generally inoffensive, and will not attack men, but prefer 
to run rather than to fight. During their migration they 
move in enormous herds, which are innumerable and ir- 
resistible. Their hides are valuable, and under the name 
of buffalo robes are an important article of commerce. The 
bisons are swift in running, and have so keen a sense of 
smell that the hunter cannot easily approach near enough 
to shoot them. The Indians circumvent them by setting 
fire to the prairie-grass on several sides, and thus driving 
them in confusion towards a central position. They also 
drive them over precipices in large herds, the momen- 
tum of which is such that the leaders cannot stop or re- 
treat, being forced forward by the mass behind them. The 
chase of Bisons is attended with some danger, as they 
sometimes turn upon an assailant, who is liable to be 
trampled under the feet of the herd. Numerous tribes of 
Aborigines are mainly dependent on the Bison for their 
food and clothing. Their skins, which are covered with 
soft hair or fur, are much used for blankets, and their 
flesh and fat are converted into pemmican, the favorite food 
of the fur-hunters and voyageurs of North America. The 
Bison differs from the true Buffaloes in having a hump 
upon the back, and in the absence of the dewlap, which 
is small in the Buffaloes. The Buffaloes have cavities in 
their horns communicating with the nasal passage, the 
Bison has not; the horns turn outward in the true Buffa- 
loes, and inward in the Bisons. 






YAK. 



85 



The flesh of the Bison is tolerable eating, but the " hump " 
appears to be unapproachable in delicacy. It is very len- 
der, and possesses the property of not cloying even when 
eaten in excess. The fat is also said to be devoid of that 




The American Bisox. 



sickening richness which is usually met with in our do- 
mesticated animals. 

The cow is smaller than the bull and considerably 
swifter. She is also generally in better condition and fat- 
ter than her mate, and in consequence the hunters who go 
to "get meat " always select the cows from the herd. 

The Yak inhabits Tartary. Of this animal in a native 
state little is known. The name of" grunniens," or grunt- 
ing, is derived from the peculiar sound that it utters. The 
tail of the Yak is very long and fine, and is used in India 
as a fan or whisk to keep off the mosquitoes. The tail is 
fixed into an ivory or metal handle, and is then called a 



86 NATURAL HISTORY. 

chowrie. Elephants are sometimes taught to carry a chow- 
rie, and wave it about in the air above the heads of those 
who ride on its back. In Turkey the tail is called a 
11 horse-tail," and is used as an emblem of dignity. 

From the shoulders of the Yak a mass of long hair falls 
almost to the ground, something like the mane of a Lion. 
This hair is applied to various purposes by the Tartars. 
They weave it into cloth, of which they not only make ar- 
ticles of dress, but also tents, and even the ropes which 
sustain the tents. 

The Gnoo, or Wildebeest, inhabits Southern Africa. At 
first sight it is difficult to say whether the horse, buffalo 
or deer predominates in its form. It belongs to neither 
of these animals, but is one of the bovine Antelopes. The 
horns cover the top of the forehead, and then, sweeping 
downwards over the face, turn boldly upwards with a 
sharp curve. The neck is furnished with a mane like that 
of the horse, and the legs are formed like those of the stag. 
It is a very swift animal, and when provoked very dan- 
gerous. When it attacks an opponent it drops on its 
knees, and then springs forward with such force that, un- 
less he is extremely active, he cannot avoid its shock* 

When it is taken young, the Gnoo can be domesticated, 
and brought up with other cattle, but it will not bear con- 
finement, and is liable to become savage under restraint. 

There are several species of this animal, the Common 
Gnoo, the Cocoon and the Brindled Gnoo. 

The size of the Gnoo is about that of a well-grown Ass. 
Its flesh is in great repute both among the natives and 
colonists. 

The Koodoo is a native of South Africa, living along the 
wooded borders of rivers. It is noted for its beautifully- 
shaped horns, which are about four feet in length and 
twisted into a large spiral of about two turns and a half. 
A bold ridge runs along the horns and follows their curva- 
ture. When hard pressed it always takes to the water, and 



^h^sii 




mb 1 



-%, -^MlHV 



88 NATURAL HISTORY, 

endeavors to escape by its powers of swimming. Although 
a large animal, nearly four feet in height, it can leap with 
wonderful activity. The weight of the horns is very con- 
siderable, and partly to relieve itself of that weight, and 
partly to guard them from entanglement in the bushes 
among which it lives and on which it feeds, it carries its 
head backwards, so that the horns rest on its shoulders. 

The Gazelle inhabits Arabia and Syria. Its eyes are 
very large, dark and lustrous, so that the Oriental poets 
love to compare the eyes of a woman to those of a gazelle. 
It is easily tamed when young, and is often seen in the 
courtyards of houses in Syria. Its swiftness is so great 
that even a greyhound can not overtake it, and the hun- 
ters are forced to make use of hawks, which are trained to 
strike at the head of the Gazelle, and thus confuse it, and 
retard its speed, so as to permit the dogs to come up. Its 
color is a dark yellowish browm, fading into white on the 
under parts. 

The Chamois is found only in mountainous regions, 
especially the Alpine chains of Europe and Western Asia. 
It lives on the loftiest ridges, displaying wonderful ac- 
tivity, and leaping with certainty and security on places 
where the eye can hardly discern room for its feet. The 
skin of the Chamois is used extensively by shoemakers. 

The Ibex inhabits the Alpine regions of Europe and 
Western Asia. It is recognized by its magnificent horns, 
which curve with a bold sweep from the head almost to 
the haunches. The horns are surrounded at regular in- 
tervals w T ith rings, and are immensely strong, serving, as 
some say, to break the fall of the Ibex when it makes a 
leap from a height. Its height is thirty inches ; the length 
of its horns often three feet. 

The Goat is not in much request in America, but in 
Syria and Switzerland large herds of them are kept for 
the sake of their milk. They almost entirely take the 
place of the Cow. The most celebrated variety of this 



GIRAFFE. 89 

animal is the Cashmir goat, which furnishes the beauti- 
fully fine wool from which the costly Cashmir shawls are 
made. 

There are many kinds of Sheep, among which the 
Common Sheep, the Long-Tailed Sheep and the Wallachian 
Sheep are the most conspicuous. Next to the Cow, the 
Sheep is our most useful animal. California produces 
better wool than any country. The Spanish Sheep is finer 
than the English, but it is much less in quantity. The 
Merino, as this Sheep is called in Spain, is annually con- 
ducted from one part of the country to another, and back 
again. The distance traversed is upwards of 400 miles, 
about six or seven weeks being occupied in the journey. 
The proprietors of the flocks think these journeys improve 
the wool ; probably a mistaken notion, as the stationary 
flocks of Leon produce quite as fine a fleece. 

The Long-Tailed Sheep inhabits Syria and Egypt. Its 
tail is so large and so loaded w 7 ith fat that, to prevent it 
from being injured by dragging on the ground, a board is 
fastened to the under side of it, and wheels are often 
attached to the board. The peculiar fat of the tail is con- 
sidered a great delicacy, and is so soft as to be frequently 
used as butter. The weight of a large tail is about 70 
pounds. 

The Wallachian or Cretan Sheep is found in Crete, Wal- 
lachia, Hungary and Western Asia. Its horns are exceed- 
ingly large, and are twisted in a manner resembling those 
of the Koodoo. It is very strong, and extremely vicious 
and unruly. In this and several other Sheep the fleece is 
composed of wool and hair mixed. The hair of the Wal- 
lachian Sheep is long and silky, like that of a spaniel, and 
of great length, falling almost to the ground. 

The Giraffe is found only in South Africa. As the 
Gnoo seems to combine the properties of the Antelope, 
Horse and Buffalo, so the Giraffe appears to bear the char- 
acteristics of the Antelope and the Camel. Naturalists say 



90 NATURAL HISTORY. 

it holds a place by itself between the Deer and Antelope. 
It forms, at all events, a group to which no other animals 
belong. 

Its height varies from thirteen to eighteen feet. Its 
beautiful long neck enables it to browse on the leaves of 
the trees on which it feeds. It is very dainty while feed- 
ing, and plucks the leaves one by one with its flexible 
tongue. On its head are two projections, closely resem- 
bling horns. They are not horns, but only thickenings 
of the bone of the skull, covered with skin, and bearing 
a tuft of black hair at the extremity of each. The fore- 
legs at first sight appear longer than the hind ones, but 
this apparent difference is only caused by the great length 
of the shoulder-blades, as both pair of legs are of the 
same length at their junction with the body. Its eyes are 
very large and prominent, so that the animal can see on 
every side without turning its head. Just over and be- 
tween the eyes is a third bony prominence, resembling 
the projecting enlargements of the skull, called horns. 
The use of these projections is not very well known, as 
although in play the Giraffe will swing its head round 
and strike with it, yet when it wishes to repel an assailant 
it has recourse to violent and rapid kicks from its hind- 
legs. So light and swift are these kicks that the eye can 
scarcely follow them, and so powerful are they that the 
lion is often driven off by them. The skin of this ani- 
mal is an inch and a half in thickness, so that it is neces- 
sary for the hunter to make very sure of his aim before 
he fires at an animal so well defended. 

The Giraffe has much difficulty in reaching the ground 
with its mouth, nor does it often attempt to do so, unless 
it is bribed with something of which it is very fond, such 
as a lump of sugar. It then straddles widely with its fore- 
legs, and with some trouble succeeds in reaching the object 
aimed at. 

The first living Giraffes, in the possession of the London 




Giraffe. 



(91) 



92 NA TUBAL. HISTOB Y. 

Zoological Society, were brought in 1835. M. Thibaut 
succeeded in taking four, which he brought with him. 
One of them is still living. From this stock several 
Giraffes have been born, some of which are still in Eng- 
land, and others have been sent to other countries. 

Its tongue is one of the most remarkable parts of its 
structure. It is very flexible and capable of great changes 
of form, the Giraffe being able to contract it so that its 
tip could enter an ordinary quill. The animal is very 
fond of exercising its tongue, and sometimes pulls the 
hairs from its companions' manes and tails and swallows 
them — no very easy feat, as the hair of the tail is often 
more than four feet long, 

The movements of the Giraffe are very peculiar, the 
limbs of each side appearing to act together. It is very 
swift, and can outrun a horse, especially if it can get 
among broken ground and rocks, over which it leaps with 
a succession of frog-like hops. 

Those born and bred here seem healthy and are exceed- 
ingly tame. They eat herbs such as grass, hay, carrots, 
and onions. When cut grass is given to them, they eat 
off the upper parts and leave the coarse stems, just as we 
eat asparagus. 

There is some confusion about the names of the camels. 
The Bactrian Camel is distinguished by bearing two 
humps on its back, the Arabian Camel by bearing only 
one. The Arabian is sometimes erroneously called the 
Dromedary; but the Dromedary is a lighter variety of 
that animal, and only used when dispatch is required. 

The Camel forms the principal wealth of the Arab; 
without it he could never attempt to penetrate the vast 
deserts where it lives, as its remarkable power of drinking 
at one draught sufficient water to serve it for several days 
enables it to march from station to station without requir- 
ing to drink by the way. The peculiar structure of its 
stomach gives it this most useful power. In its stomach 




£0 : 

- . ** *' • it;' 1 



94 NATURAL HISTORY. 

are a great number of deep cells, into which the water 
passes, and is then prevented from escaping by a muscle 
which closes the mouth of the cells. When the camel 
feels thirsty it has the power of casting some of the water 
contained in these cells into its mouth. The habits of this 
animal are very interesting. 

The foot of the Camel is admirably adapted for walking 
on the loose sand, being composed of large, elastic pads, 
which spread as the foot is placed on the ground. To 
guard it from injury when it kneels down to be loaded, 
the parts of the body on which its weight rests are defended 
by thick callosities. The largest of these callosities is on 
the chest, the others are placed on the joints of the legs. 

The Bactrian Camel inhabits Central Asia and China. 

The Llamas, of which there are several species, inhabit 
South America, and are used for the same purposes as the 
Camel. When wild they are very timid, and fly from a 
pursuer the moment that they see him ; but their curiosity 
is so great that the hunter often secures them by lying on 
the ground and throwing his legs and arms about. The 
Llamas come to see what the extraordinary animal can 
be, and give the hunter an opportunity of firing several 
shots, which the astonished animals consider as part of 
the performance. 

The Llamas, like the Camels, have a series of cells in the 
stomach for containing water, and can go for several days 
without requiring to drink. If too heavily laden, or when 
they are weary, they lie down, and no punishment will 
induce them to rise, so that their masters are forced to 
unload them. When offended they have a very unpleas- 
ant habit of spitting at the object of their anger. Their 
saliva is not injurious. 

Its fleece is very long, resembling silk more than wool. 
It is very valuable, and is used for making cloth and other 
fabrics. The fleece of the Alpaca is considered the best, 
and it is sometimes twelve inches in length and very fine. 




A Family of Red Deer. 



(95) 



96 NATURAL HISTORY. 

In Chili and Peru the natives domesticate the Llama, 
which in a state of captivity frequently becomes white. 
It is by no means a large animal, as it measures about four 
feet six in height. In general shape it resembles the Camel, 
but has no hump on its back, and its feet are provided 
with sharp hoofs for climbing the rocky hills among which 
it lives. In Peru, where it is most commonly found, there 
are public shambles established for the sale of its flesh. 

The Red Deer, or Stag, is the largest of the Deer. In 
the language of hunters it bears different names according 
to the size of its horns, which increase year by year. All 
the male Deer have horns, which they shed every year and 
renew again. The process of renewal is most interesting. 
A skin, filled with arteries, covers the projections on which 
the horns rest. This skin, called the " velvet," is engaged 
in continually depositing bone on the footstalks, which 
rapidly increase in size. As the budding horns increase, 
the velvet increases also, and the course of the arteries is 
marked on the horn by long furrows, wh ; ch are never ob- 
literated. When the horn has reached its full growth it 
cannot be at once used, as the velvet is very tender, and 
would bleed profusely if wounded. The velvet cannot be 
suddenly removed, as the blood that formed the arteries 
would rush to the brain and destroy the animal. A ring 
of bone forms round the root of each horn, leaving pas- 
sages through which the arteries pass. By degrees these 
passages become narrow, and finally close entirely, thus 
gradually shutting off the blood. The velvet, being de- 
prived of its nourishment, dies, and is peeled off by the 
Deer by rubbing against a tree, leaving the white, hard 
horn beneath. 

Hunting the Stag is a favorite amusement in Europe, 
and packs of hounds, called Stag-hounds, are kept ex- 
pressly for that purpose. 

The Fallow-Deer are usually seen in parks. One 
large buck always takes the lead, and suffers none but a 



98 NATURAL HISTORY. 

few favorite does to approach his regal presence, all the 
other bucks moving humbly away when he puts in an 
appearance. They are generally tame, and will suffer 
people to come very close to them ; but at a certain time 
of the year they become savage, and will not permit any 
one to approach their domains. If an intruder ventures 
within the proscribed distance, the buck will instantly 
charge upon him. They soon become familiar with those 
who treat them kindly, and will eat from their hands. 

The Reindeer is found throughout the Arctic regions 
of Europe, Asia, and America. The finest animals are 
those of Lapland and Spitzbergen. The Laplander finds 
his chief wealth in the possession of the Reindeer, which 
not only serves him as a beast of burden, but furnishes 
him with food and clothing. A Laplander in good cir- 
cumstances will possess about three hundred deer, which 
enable him to live in comfort. The subsistence of one 
who only possesses one hundred is very precarious, and 
he who has only fifty usually joins his animals with the 
herd of some richer man, and takes the menial labors 
upon himself. 

The Reindeer feeds principally on a kind of lichen, which 
it scrapes from beneath the snow. During the winter its 
coat thickens, and assumes a lighter hue, many deer being 
almost white. Its hoofs are divided very high, so that 
when the animal places its foot upon the ground, the 
hoof spreads wide, and as it raises the foot a snapping 
noise is heard, caused by the parts of the hoof closing to- 
gether. When harnessed to a sledge it can draw 300 
pounds' weight at about ten miles an hour. 

The European Elk inhabits the northern parts of Eu- 
rope. It was considered at one time to be identical with 
the American Elk, but naturalists now believe it to be a 
distinct animal. Its usual pace is a high, awkward trot, 
but when frightened it sometimes gallops. In Sweden it 
was formerly used to draw sledges, but on account of the 



ELK. 



99 



great facility of escape offered to criminals by its great 
speed, the use of it was forbidden under high penalties. 




A Family of Elk. 



The skin of the Elk is so tough that a regiment of soldiers 
was furnished with waistcoats made of its hide, which 
could scarcely be penetrated by a ball. 

Like the Reindeer, the Elk makes a great clattering with 
its hoofs when in rapid motion. It is a good swimmer, 



100 NATURAL HISTORY. 

and is fond of taking to the water in summer time. It is 
a rather dangerous antagonist when incensed, as it fights 
desperately with its horns and hoofs. It has been known 
to destroy a wolf with a single stroke of its hoofs. 

We now arrive at the Pachydermata, or thick-skinned 
animals which do not chew the cud. The first on the list 
is the Horse, an animal too well known in all its varieties 
to need much description. The ancients never appeared 
to ride on the war horse to battle, but fought from small 
open chariots, to which two or more horses were harnessed. 

The Arabian Horse is a model of elegance and beauty. 
The Arab treats his horse as one of the family ; it lives in 
the same tent with him, eats from his hand, and sleeps 
among his children, who tumble about on it without the 
least fear. It is hard to induce the Arab to part with a 
favorite horse. 

The plains of La Plata and Paraguay are tenanted by 
vast herds of wild horses. These are captured by the 
lasso, bitted, mounted, and broken within an hour, by the 
daring and skilful Guachos. 

The English Horse, from which our best horses have 
come, has much Arabian and Barb blood in it. The race- 
horse is swifter for short distances than the best Arabian 
horse. It is much like the Arabian in looks, but is taller 
and longer, and has changed in color. The Arabian is 
generally white, light gray, or flea-bitten, but the race- 
horse is more usually bay and chestnut. The changes 
have probably come from the difference in the climate and 
in the way the horses are brought up. The American 
racehorse is descended from the English racehorse and is 
therefore also of Arabian blood. 

The Godolphin Arabian, Flying Childers, Iroquois, and 
Foxhall are four of the most celebrated racers. 

The fastest mile ever run by a racehorse in the United 
States up to 1890 was made by Salvator in one minute and 
thirty-five and one-half (1.35J) seconds. 



102 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Our Trotting Horse is the fastest in the world. It is not 
a thoroughbred horse, or a horse of pure racing blood, 
like the racehorse, but is generally a descendant of a cross 
between the racehorse and some common breed ; but a 
few thoroughbred racing horses have been taught to trot 
very fast. It is not usually as tall as the running horse, 
and is sometimes small. There is also a good breed of 
trotting horses in Russia, called Orloff trotters, which is 
faster than common horses, but not so fast as the Ameri- 
can trotter. The fastest mile ever trotted in the United 
States up to 1894 was made at Galesburg, Illinois, by Alix 
in two minutes and three and three-quarter (2.031) sec- 
onds. The great pacing stallion John R. Gentry went a 
mile in the remarkable time of 2.01J at Glen's Falls, New 
York, September 10, 1896. 

Draught Horses, or horses used for drawing heavy loads, 
are raised in many countries. In France the Percheron 
breed has been noted for hundreds of years. Many of 
them are seen in Paris, where they are used for drawing 
omnibuses and business wagons, and a few of them are 
used here. They are large, heavy horses, with large 
heads. In England the breeds called the Suffolk, the 
Cleveland Bay, and the Clydesdale are noted for their 
size and strength. The Flanders horse, of Belgium and 
Holland, is very large, heavy, and strong. Many of the 
great horses used by brewers are of this breed. 

All these breeds are called heavy draught horses, because 
they are used in the heaviest kinds of trucks and large 
wagons. There are also light draught horses, for drawing 
lighter loads, which are not quite so heavy in the body 
and are quicker in their motions. The carriage horse is 
of a lighter and more elegant form than the common 
draught horse, but is generally large and strong. The 
saddle horse should be smaller than the carriage horse, 
graceful and active in all its movements, and taught to 
obey the rein and to understand every motion of its rider. 



104 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Ponies are found in many countries. Among the most 
noted are the Shetland ponies, raised in the islands of the 
same name, north of Scotland, where they are called Shel- 
ties. Some of these little horses are not much larger than 
a great dog, but they are very strong, and will carry a man 
with ease. The prairie Indians have a breed of ponies 
which are very hardy and strong. One of them will 
travel all day long with a heavy man on its back. 

The humble and hardy Ass is scarcely less serviceable 
to man than the more imposing horse. Where it meets 
with harsh treatment, is scantily fed, and only used for 
laborious tasks, it is dull and obstinate ; but in the East, 
where it is employed by the rich, and is properly treated, 
it is an elegant and spirited animal with good action and 
smooth coat. 

The Zebra is found in South Africa. This beautiful 
animal lives in troops among the mountains, shunning 
the presence of man. It is distinguished by the regular 
stripes of brownish black with which its whole body is 
covered, even down to the hoofs. It is very wild and sus- 
picious, carefully placing sentinels to look out for danger. 
Notwithstanding these precautions, several zebras have 
been taken alive, and some, in spite of their vicious habits, 
have been trained to draw a carriage. It could probably 
be domesticated like the Ass, as the black cross on the back 
and shoulders of the latter animal prove the affinity be- 
tween them. The voice of the Zebra is peculiar and can 
hardly be described. 

The Elephant. Of this magnificent animal, whose form 
is familiar to every eye, two species are known, the Indian 
and the African. The anatomy of this huge quadruped is 
well worthy of consideration. Its head and tusks are so 
very heavy that no long neck would bear them ; the neck 
is therefore very short. But this shortness of neck pre- 
vents the Elephant from putting its head to the ground, or 
from stooping to the water's edge. This apparent defect 




Asiatic Elephant — Indian Elephant. 



(105) 



106 NATURAL HISTORY. 

is compensated by the wonderful manner in which its 
upper lip and nose are elongated, and rendered capable of 
drawing up water or plucking grass. In the trunk there 
are about 40,000 muscles, enabling it to shorten, lengthen, 
coil up or move in any direction this most extraordinary 
organ. The trunk is pierced throughout its length by two 
canals, through which liquids can be. drawn by suction. 
If the Elephant wishes to drink, after drawing the liquid 
into its trunk, it inserts the end of its trunk into its mouth, 
and discharges the contents down its throat; but if it 
wishes to wash itself or play, it blows the contained 
liquid from the trunk with great violence. Through the 
trunk its curious trumpet-like voice is produced. At the 
extremity is a finger-like appendage, with which it can 
pick up small objects. In order to sustain' the muscles of 
the jaw and neck, the head must be very large; were it 
solid, it would be very heavy. The skull is therefore 
formed of a number of cells of bone, forming the necessary 
expanse without the weight, leaving but a very small 
cavity for the brain. 

This fact will account for the numberless bullet wounds 
which an elephant will endure in the skull. The ball, 
instead of penetrating to the braiji, merely lodges among 
the bony cells, and does no great mischief. A ball was 
once found firmly imbedded in the tusk of an elephant ; 
it was thoroughly impacted, and there was no apparent 
opening by which it could have reached the place that it 
occupied. It was found that the ball had struck the 
elephant at the base of the tusk, so as to have sunk among 
the soft and as yet unformed ivory. This by degrees was 
pushed on as the tusk grew in successive years, until it 
was at last surrounded closely by hard ivory. A spear- 
head has been also found similarly imbedded. 

The Indian Elephant is almost invariably taken from 
its native haunts and then trained. The Indian hunters 
proceed into the woods with two trained female elephants. 



: 



TAPIR. 107 

These advance quietly, and so occupy the attention of any 
unfortunate male that they meet, that the hunters are en- 
abled to tie his legs together and fasten him to a tree. His 
treacherous companions now leave him to struggle in im- 
potent rage, until he is so subdued by hunger and fatigue 
that the hunters can drive him home between their two 
tame elephants. When once captured he is easily trained. 
In captivity it is very docile and gentle, but sometimes, 
when provoked, will take a very ample revenge. Of this 
propensity many anecdotes are told 

Its tusks and teeth furnish fine ivory, which is used for 
knife-handles, combs, billiard-balls, etc. All Elephants 
are fond of the water, and sometimes submerge themselves 
so far, that nothing but the tip of the proboscis remains 
above the surface. In a tame state, the Elephant delights 
in concealing itself below the water, and deluging the 
spectators with a stream sent from its trunk. 

The African Elephant is distinguished from the Indian 
Elephant by the markings of its teeth and some difference 
in form, noticeably, having much larger ears. 

The Tapir forms one of the links connecting the Ele- 
phant with the Hog. The snout is lengthened into a kind 
of proboscis like that of the Elephant, but it is compara- 
tively short, and has no finger-like appendage at the ex- 
tremity. 

It is spread throughout the warmer regions of South 
America. It sleeps during the day, and wanders about at 
night in search of its food, which consists of watermelons, 
gourds, and other vegetables. It is fond of the water, and 
can remain below the surface for a long time. It is a 
powerful animal, and as it is furnished with a very thick 
hide, it plunges through the brushwood, breaking its way 
through any obstacles that may oppose its progress. Its 
disposition is gentle, but when annoj^ed it rushes at its 
antagonist, and defends itself vigorously with its powerful 
teeth. The Jaguar frequently springs on it, but is often 



108 NATURAL HISTORY. 

dislodged by the activity of the Tapir, who rushes through 
the bushes immediately that it feels the claws of its enemy, 
and endeavors to brush him off against the thick branches. 
The height of the American Tapir is from five to six feet. 
The Malay Tapir is somewhat larger, and is known by the 
grayish white color of the loins and hind-quarters, which 
give the animal the appearance as if a white horse-cloth 
had been spread over it. 

The Boar. The animals composing the Hog tribe are 
found in almost every part of the globe. Their feet are 
cloven and externally resemble those of the Ruminants, 
but an examination of the bones at once points out the 
difference. 

The Wild Hog or Boar inhabits many parts of Europe, 
especially the forests of Germany, where its chase is a 
common amusement. Its tusks are terrible weapons. 
They curve outwards from the lower jaw, and are some- 
times ten inches in length. In India, where the Boar at- 
tains to a great size, the horses on which the hunters are 
mounted often refuse to bring their riders within spear 
stroke of the infuriated animal, who has been known to 
kill a horse, and severely injure the rider with one sweep 
of its enormous tusks. 

The Domestic Hog scarcely needs any description. It 
is by no means the unclean and filthy animal that it is 
represented. It certainly is fond of wallowing in the 
mire, as are the Elephants, Tapirs, etc., but no animal seems 
to enjoy clean straw more than the Hog. We shut it up in 
a dirty, narrow crib, give it any kind of refuse to eat, and 
then abuse it for being a dirty animal and an unclean 
feeder. 

The Babyroussa inhabits the Molucca Islands and 
Java. It is remarkable for possessing four tusks, two of 
which proceed from the upper jaw, and do not pass out 
between the lips, but through an aperture in the skin, 
half way between the end of the snout and eyes. The 



BABYROUSSA. 



109 



sockets of the two upper tusks are curved upwards, and 
give a singular appearance to the skull of the animal. It 
looks a ferocious animal, and it is very savage and cannot 




Khinoceros Head. 

be hunted without danger. Yet when taken young it can 
be tamed without much difficulty, and conducts itself 
much after the manner of a well-behaved pig. 

Only the male possesses the remarkable double pair of 



110 NATURAL HISTORY. 

tusks, the female being destitute of the upper pair, and 
only possessing those belonging to the under jaw in a 
rudimentary degree. It lives in troops, as do most of the 
Hog kind, and thus does great damage to the cultivated 
grounds, especially to the maize, a plant to which it is very 
partial. It is a good swimmer, and often takes to the water 
in order to cross to another island. The size of the ani- 
mal, when full grown, is about that of a very large Hog. 

The Rhinoceros. There are, apparently, six species of 
this formidable animal, inhabiting various parts of Asia 
and Africa. They can be distinguished from each other 
by the number and shape of their horns, and the color of 
their bodies. Their habits are much alike. 

The Rhinoceros is always a surly and ill-tempered ani- 
mal, and is much given to making unprovoked attacks on 
man and beast, if it should happen to fancy itself insulted 
by their presence. Their chief peculiarity, the so-called 
horn, is a mass of fibers matted together, and closely re- 
sembling the structure of whalebone. Their feet are di- 
vided into three toes, incased in hoofs. The horn is not 
connected with the skull, but is merely a growth from the 
skin, from which it can be separated by means of a sharp 
penknife. Being made of very strong materials, it is em- 
ployed in the manufacture of ramrods, clubs, and other 
similar implements. When properly worked, it is capable 
of taking a very high polish, and is cut into drinking-cups. 

Its organs of scent are very acute, and as the creature 
seems to have a peculiar faculty for detecting the presence 
of human beings, it is necessary for the hunters to use the 
greatest circumspection when they approach it, whether to 
avoid or to kill, as in the one case it may probably be 
taken with a sudden fit of fury, and charge at them, or in 
the other case it may take the alarm and escape. 

The upper lip is used by the Rhinoceros to grasp the 
herbage on which it feeds, or pick up small fruit from the 
ground. A very tame Rhinoceros has been known to take 



112 NATURAL HISTORY. 

a piece of bun or biscuit from a visitor's hand by means of 
its flexible upper lip. 

There is, probably, but one species of Hippopotamus. 
It inhabits Africa exclusively, and is found in plenty on 
the banks of many rivers in that country, where it is seen 
gamboling and snorting at all times of the day. 

These animals are quiet and inoffensive while undis- 
turbed, but if attacked they unite to repel the invader, 
and have been known to tear several planks from the side 
of a boat and sink it. They can remain about five min- 
utes under water, and when they emerge they make a loud 
and very peculiar snorting noise, which can be heard at a 
great distance. The hide is very thick and strong, and is 
chiefly used for whips. The well-known " cow-hides " are 
made of this material. Between the skin and flesh is a 
layer of fat, which is salted and eaten by the Dutch colo- 
nists of Southern Africa. When salte<j it is called Sea- 
cow's bacon. The flesh is also in some request. 

The Hippopotamus feeds entirely on vegetable sub- 
stances, such as grass and brushwood. The fine animal 
now in the London Zoological Society eats all kinds of 
vegetables, not disdaining roots. 

From the construction of the head, the animal is en- 
abled to raise its eyes and nostrils above the water at the 
same time, so that it can survey the prospect and breathe 
without raising more than an inch or two of its person from 
the water. In order to attain this object, the eyes are very 
small, and placed very high in the head, while the muzzle 
is very large, and the nostrils open on its upper surface. 

Cumming relates that the track of the Hippopotamus 
may be readily distinguished from that of any other ani- 
mal by a line of unbroken herbage which is left between 
the marks of the feet on each side, as the width of the 
space between the right and left legs causes the animal to 
place its feet so considerably apart as to make a distinct 
double track. 








Hippopotamus. 



(113) 



114 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The teeth of the Hippopotamus are the mainstay of the 
dentist, who cuts from the tusk of a Hippopotamus those 
series of elegant teeth which replace those that age or 
accident has struck out of the human mouth. The ivory 
is exceedingly hard, and does not readily lose its beautiful 
whiteness, being properties which render it especially 
valuable for such purposes. 

This is supposed by many to be the animal called 
Behemoth in Scripture. 

The Sloth is an example of the errors into w T hich 
naturalists are led from hasty observation. The great 
Cuvier himself condemns the Sloth as a degraded and 
miserable animal, moving with pain, and misshapen in 
form. Yet iho animal is more fitted for its position than 
the Sloth. In its wild state it spends its w r hole life in the 
trees, and never leaves them but through force or accident, 
and, what is more extraordinary, not upon the branches, 
like the Squirrel and Monkey, but under them. He moves 
suspended from the branch, he rests suspended from the 
branch and he sleeps suspended from the branch. 

To render it fit for this singular mode of life, its long 
and powerful arms are furnished with strong, curved claws, 
which hook round the branches and keep the animal 
suspended without any effort. When on the ground 
these claws are very inconvenient, and it can barely 
shuffle along; but when it is among its native branches 
it moves w T ith exceeding rapidity, particularly in a gale 
of wind, when it passes from branch to branch, and from 
tree to tree, with an activity which its movements on the 
ground by no means portend. 

The Pangolins are known by the peculiar, strong, horny 
plates with which their bodies are defended, giving them 
the appearance of animals enveloped in a suit of scale 
armor. When attacked they roll themselves up, wrap 
their tails round them, and raise the whole array of sharp- 
edged scales with which their body is covered, and bid 



116 NATURAL HISTORY. 

defiance to almost any enemy except man. They live on 
ants and termites, or white ants, as they are called, which 
they take by thrusting their long, slender tongue among 
the ants, which adhere to it by a gummy saliva. When 
the tongue is covered it is rapidly retracted, and the ants 
swallowed. To obtain the ants, the Pangolins are fur- 
nished with powerful claws to tear down the dwellings of 
their prey. The long- tailed species is widely scattered 
through Africa, but is not very common. The length of 
its body is about two feet, and that of its tail rather more 
than three. The short-tailed is common in India. Its 
entire length is about four feet. 

The Armadillos live exclusively in the warmer parts 
of South and Central America. They eat carrion, insects, 
and sometimes fallen fruit. They burrow with great ra- 
pidity, and can only be forced from their refuge by smoke 
or water. When hunted and close pressed they endeavor 
to escape by rapidly burrowing into the earth, or try to 
oppose a partial resistance by rolling themselves up and 
trusting to the protection of their armor. The natives and 
colonists consider them great delicacies when roasted in 
their shells. 

The curious Ant-eater inhabits Guiana, Brazil and 
Paraguay, and lives principally upon ants and termites, 
which it procures in precisely the same manner as was 
related of the Pangolins. Its short legs and long claws 
would lead an observer to suppose that its pace was slow 
and constrained, but when chased it runs off with a pecu- 
liar trot, and with such rapidity that it keeps a horse to 
its speed to overtake it. 

Its tongue looks exactly like a great red worm, and 
when the creature is engaged in devouring its food, the 
rapid coiling and twisting of the tongue add in no small 
degree to the resemblance. 

The claws are very long and curved, and are exceedingly 
strong. They are placed on the foot in such a manner 



w 



JHt 




118 NATURAL HISTORY. 

that when the animal is walking its weight rests on the 
outside of the fore-feet and the outer edge of the claws, 
which make a great clattering if the Ant-eater is walking 
upon a hard surface. 

When it sleeps it lies on one side, rolls itself up, so 
that its snout rests on its breast, places all its feet together, 
and covers itself with its bushy tail. The fur of the ani- 
mal resembles hay, and when it is thus curled up in sleep 
it is so exactly like a bundle of hay that anyone might 
pass it carelessly, imagining it to be nothing but a loose 
heap of that substance. Its ordinary length is about forty- 
three inches, and its height about three feet. 

The Duck-billed Platypus. Australia, where every- 
thing seems to be reversed, where the north wind is warm 
and the south wind cold, the thick end of a pear is next 
the stem, and the stone of a cherry grows outside, is the 
residence of this most extraordinary animal. When it 
was first introduced into Europe it was fully believed to 
be the manufacture of some impostor, who with much in- 
genuity had fixed the beak of a duck into the head of some 
unknown animal. It will, however, be seen by the skull 
of the animal that this duck-like beak really belongs to 
the animal, and is caused by a prolongation of some of 
the bones of the head. 

It lives by the banks of rivers, in which it burrows like 
the Water-rat. Curiously enough, it finds no difficulty in 
this labor, for the feet are so constructed that the animal 
can fold back the web at pleasure, and thus the foot is en- 
abled to perform its task. It feeds upon water insects and 
shell-fish, always rejecting the crushed shells after swal- 
lowing the inhabitant. The male has a sharp spur on its 
hind-feet. 

The learned have given the animal several names. The 
native name for the creature is " Mullingong." 



BIRDS. 

Birds are distinguished from the Mammalia by their 
general form, their feathery covering, and by producing 
their young inclosed in eggs. 

The different orders of birds are principally known by 
the character of the claws and beak. Before attending to 
individual species, we will first examine some of the struc- 
tures common to all birds. 

One of the first great marks of distinction in birds is the 
wing. This organ is a modification of the arm or fore- 
limb of mammalia, clothed with feathers instead of hair. 

The bones of adult birds are not filled with marrow 
like the bones of mammalia, but are hollow and filled with 
air, and are therefore rendered very light, a bone of a goose 
being barely half the weight of a rabbit's bone of the same 
size, after the marrow has been extracted. The bones 
forming the wing are beautifully jointed together, and ar- 
ranged so as to give great strength together w r ith lightness. 
Most persons seem to fancy that the foot of the bird is that 
part which grasps the branch, or by means of which it 
walks on the ground — that the joint above that member 
is the knee — and that the thigh is the feathered portion of 
the limb that proceeds from the bird's body. These ideas 
are all wrong. 

The leg of a bird is formed on much the same principle 
as the hind-leg of a quadruped, the part that grasps the 
branches being composed of the toes, the so-called knee- 
joint being the heel-bone of the foot, so that the whole 
foot reaches half way from the perch to the bird. The 

(119) 



120 NATURAL HIS TOBY. 

knee-joint is placed high up against the body, and is 
buried in the feathers. 

As the wing presents a very broad surface to the air, it 
is necessary that very powerful muscles should be used to 
move it with sufficient rapidity. The pectoral muscles 
are therefore enormously developed, extending almost the 
whole length of the body, as every one who has carved 
a fowl must have seen, and in order to form an attach- 
ment for these immense muscles, the ridge of the breast- 
bone is equally enlarged. It is the want of these enlarged 
muscles that prevents man from flying, even when he has 
attached wings to his arms. The principal characteristics 
of birds are taken from their foot and beak. 

The fuller and more technical description of the Birds 
runs as follows. They are vertebrate animals, but do not 
suckle their young. The young are not produced in , an 
actively animated state, but enclosed in the egg, from 
which they do not emerge until they have been warmed 
into independent life by the effects of constant warmth. 
Generally, the eggs are hatched by means of the natural 
warmth which proceeds from the mother- bird ; but in 
some instances, such as that of the Tallegalla of Australia, 
the eggs are placed in a vast heap of dead leaves and 
grass, and developed by means of the heat which is ex- 
haled from decaying vegetable substances. 

The number of existing species of birds being in all 
probability considerably over ten thousand, it will be ob- 
vious that the various groups must be treated briefly; and 
in many instances we shall be able to allude only to the 
families, without referring to the genera, and in some 
cases not even the whole of the former are mentioned. 

The Lammergeyer, or Bearded Vulture, inhabits 
most mountain ranges, and is very common in the Alps 
of Switzerland and Germany, where, from its depreda- 
tions on the kids and lambs, it has earned its name of 
Lammergeyer. 



122 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Although called the Bearded " Vulture," it is not strictly 
a vulture, as its head and neck are feathered, and it rejects 
putrid flesh, unless hard pressed by hunger. 

It destroys hares and young or sickly sheep and goats, 
nor, when rendered fierce by hunger, does it fear to attack 
the adult chamois, or even man. It is said to destroy the 
larger animals by watching until they are near the brink 
of a precipice, and suddenly driving them over the rocks 
by an unexpected swoop. In this manner the strong and 
swift chamois falls a victim to the craft of its winged foe, 
and instances are not wanting where the chamois-hunter 
himself has been struck from a narrow ridge into the val- 
ley beneath by a blow from this ferocious bird. It is ex- 
ceedingly bold, and shows but little fear of man. 

The name of " Bearded " Vulture is given to it on ac- 
count of the long tuft of hairs with which each nostril is 
clothed. The length of its body is about four feet, and the 
expanse of its wings from nine to ten. It lays two eggs. 

The Condor inhabits the Andes of South America, al- 
ways choosing its residence on the summit of a solitary 
rock. This bird does not build any nest, but lays its two 
white eggs on the bare rock after the manner of many sea 
birds. The expanse of wing is about ten feet, and the 
length of the bird about three feet. It is exceedingly 
strong and tenacious of life. Two Condors will attack and 
kill the llama; for by repeated buffeting and pecking 
they weary it so completely that it yields to their perse- 
verance. 

The true Vultures are the representatives of the carrion- 
devouring animals, such as the Hyenas, Wild Dogs, etc. 
They, however, do not attack living animals. The neck of 
the Vulture is almost naked, very slightly sprinkled with 
down, and, from the formation of the lower part of the 
neck, the bird is enabled to draw its head almost under 
the feathers of its shoulders, so that a hasty observer would 
conclude that the creature had no neck at all. 




White-Headed Sea-Eagle. 



(123) 



124 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The marvellous quickness with which the Vultures dis- 
cover a dead animal has caused many discussions among 
naturalists as to the sense employed ; some declaring en- 
tirely for sight, and others asserting that the scent of putrid 
animal matter leads the Vultures to their prey. 

The probability is that both senses are used, one aiding 
the other. Where a dead hog was hidden under canes and 
briers numbers of Vultures were seen sailing in all direc- 
tions over the spot, evidently directed by the scent, but 
unable to discover by their eyes the exact position of the 
animal. The olfactory nerves of the Vulture are beauti- 
fully developed. 

The Griffon Vulture is found in almost all parts of 
the old. world. It is one of the largest of its group, meas- 
uring upwards of four feet in length. Like most of the 
Vultures, it does not appear to move its wings while fly- 
ing, but soars in large circles. 

Vultures are generally protected by the natives of the 
countries where they reside on account of their great utility 
in clearing away putrid animal matter. 

They seem to hold the same place among birds as the 
Hyenas among the Mammalia. 

Eagles are characterized by hooked beaks and sharp, 
powerful claws. About seventy species are known. They 
have great powers of flight and of vision, are diurnal and 
solitary in their habits, and use their claws in killing their 
prey. The Eagle was regarded by the ancients as a sym- 
bol of royalty, and has the proverbial distinction of being 
the king of birds. Large specimens of the Eagle measure 
three and a half feet in length, and nine feet from tip to 
tip of the expanded wings. These birds usually breed in 
mountainous districts or forests, remote from human habi- 
tations. They are all monogamous, and it is said that a 
pair will live together in perfect harmony until death sepa- 
rates them. They build their nests on a high tree, a ledge 
of rock, or on some inaccessible cliff. The nest is inar- 



EAGLES. 125 

tistically constructed of sticks, which are rudely arranged. 
The Eagle is supposed to live to a great age, more than 
one hundred years. 

The Golden Eagle is a magnificent bird found in Europe, 
Asia and North America, deriving its name from the 
golden-red color of the feathers which cover its head and 
neck. The plumage of the body is a rich dark- brown. 
This species is the largest of the European Eagles. It 
feeds on hares, lambs, pigs, fish, etc., which it carries to 
its nest. When in pursuit of its prey it is very audacious, 
and has been seen to carry off a hare before the noses of a 
pack of hounds. 

It is stated that the Golden Eagle can be tamed, and has 
been trained to catch game for its master. Its flight is 
graceful. It sweeps through the air in a series of spiral 
curves, rising with every spire, and making no perceptible 
effort or motion with its wings. To keep the sunshine 
above from teasing it, the eye is put under a triangular 
pent-house, which is the most characteristic thing in the 
bird's whole aspect. The Imperial Eagle, which inhabits 
Asia and Southern Europe, is nearly as large as the Golden 
Eagle, and is similar in appearance. Its head and neck 
are covered with feathers of a deep fawn-color. It gene- 
rally builds on lofty trees. 

The national bird of the United States is the Bald Eagle, 
which has a white head, neck and tail. Its length is about 
forty inches, the stretch of wing about eight feet. The 
nest of the Bald Eagle is generally made upon some lofty 
tree, and sometimes becomes of great size, as the bird is in 
the habit of using the same nest year after year, and mak- 
ing additions to it every season. The female bird gene- 
rally lays her eggs in January, two or three in number, 
and they are hatched by the middle of February. It is 
strongly attached to its young, and will not forsake them, 
even if the tree on which they rest be enveloped in flames. 
It is fond of fish, which it generally steals from the osprey. 



126 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Its habit is to watch near a river until an osprey has 
caught a fish, which the Eagle snatches in the air or catches 
as it falls from the claws of the osprey. It is widely dis- 
tributed through different regions of North America, and 
frequents the sea-coasts, lakes and large rivers. 

The Harpy Eagle is a fierce and powerful bird of Mexico 
and of Central and South America. A single stroke of its 
bill has been known to break a man's skull. 

The Buzzards are distinguished by their short beaks, 
large, rounded wings and squared tails. They all live on 
small animals, reptiles and various insects. The Com- 
mon Buzzard occurs throughout most of Europe and part 
of Asia. When searching for food it rests upon some high 
branch, waiting until some small animal makes its appear- 
ance, when it sweeps down from its elevation, seizes its 
prey without settling on the ground, and returns, if not 
disturbed, to the same spot. 

It generally builds in high trees, but has been known to 
make its nest among rocks. Its eggs are usually three in 
number. Its length is about twenty-two inches. 

The Kite, Glede, or Gled is spread over Europe, Asia 
and Northern Africa. It is hated by the farmer for its 
depredations on his poultry, and its appearance is the 
signal for a general outcry among the terrified poultry, 
who perceive it long before the keenest-eyed man can 
distinguish it from a casual spot in the distant sky. The 
sportsman detests it for the havoc it makes among the 
game. 

It builds in tall trees and lays three eggs. Its length is 
rather more than two feet. 

The Peregrine Falcon, an inhabitant of most parts of 
Europe, Asia and South America, was in the palmy days 
of hawking one of the favorite Falcons chosen for that 
sport. Its strength and swiftness are very great, enabling 
it to strike down its prey with great ease ; indeed, it has' 
been known to disable five partridges in succession. From 




The Greenland Falcon. 



(127) 



128 NATURAL HISTORY. 

its successful pursuit of ducks it is sometimes called the 
Duck Hawk. 

Instead of merely dashing at its prey, and grasping it 
with its claws, the Peregrine Falcon strikes its victim with 
its breast, and actually stuns it with the violence of the 
blow before seizing it with its claws. The boldness of the 
Peregrine is so great that it was generally employed to 
take the formidable Heron. After the Heron had been 
roused by some marsh, the Falcon, who had previously 
been held hooded on its master's hand, was loosed from 
its bonds and cast off. A contest then took place, each 
striving to ascend above the other. In this contest the 
Falcon was always victorious, and after it had attained a 
sufficient altitude it swept, or " stooped," as the phrase 
was, upon the Heron. When the Falcon had closed with 
its prey they both came to the ground together, and the 
sportsman's business was to reach the place and assist the 
Falcon in vanquishing its prey. Sometimes, however, the 
wary Heron contrived to receive its enemy on the point 
of its sharp beak, and transfixed it by its own impetus. 

It changes the color of its plumage several times before 
it arrives at full maturity, and in the days of falconry was 
known by different names, such as " haggard," when wild, 
u eyeass," " red falcon," when young, " tiercel " or " tassel- 
gentle," when a full-grown male. It builds on ledges of 
rocks, laying four eggs, and its length is about 18 inches. 

The Kestrel, or Windhover, as it is often called, fre- 
quently falls a victim to the mistaken zeal of the farmer, 
who takes every opportunity of destroying it, as he con- 
founds it with the sparrow-hawk. The natural food of 
the Kestrel is field-mice, so that the farmer should protect 
instead of murdering his benefactor. These birds are not 
uncommon. Their nest is usually built in the deserted 
mansion of a crow or magpie. The eggs are four in num- 
ber. The length is about fifteen inches. 

The Sparrow-hawk is common throughout Europe. 



owls. 129 

It displays great pertinacity in pursuit of its prey, which 
it will chase for a long while, skimming along a few feet 
above the ground. One of these hawks was known to 
dash through a window in pursuit of a small bird. When 
taken young it is easily tamed. Its length is about fifteen 
inches. It builds upon lofty trees, laying five eggs. 

The Secretary Bird derives its name from the tufts of 
feathers at the back of its head, which bear a fanciful 
resemblance to pens stuck behind the ear. This extraor- 
dinary bird inhabits South Africa, Senegambia and the 
Philippine Islands. Probably a different species inhabit 
each of these countries. It feeds on snakes and other 
reptiles, of which it consumes an amazing number, and 
is on that account protected. When battling with a snake 
it covers itself with one wing, as with a shield, and with 
the other strikes at the reptile until it falls senseless, when 
a powerful blow from the beak splits the snake's head 
asunder, and the vanquished enemy is speedily swal- 
lowed. In the crop of a dissected Secretary Bird w 7 ere 
found eleven large lizards, three serpents, each a yard in 
length, eleven small tortoises and a great quantity of 
locusts and other insects. It is easily tamed, and is then 
exceedingly useful. It builds on high trees, laying three 
large eggs. Its length is about three feet. 

Owls. A large round head, with enormous eyes look- 
ing forward, is a distinguishing mark of the owl family. 
Many species possess two feathery tufts placed on the 
head, greatly resembling horns. The Owls are nocturnal 
birds, pursuing their prey by night and sleeping during 
the day. Their eyes are enormously large, and capable 
of taking in every ray of light. Their power of vision is 
also increased by the method in which the eye is fixed in 
a kind of bony socket, just like a watchmaker's glass. 
The power of hearing is very delicate, and greatly assists 
them. In order to protect them from the cold, they have 
a dense covering of downy feathers, which also prevent 

9 



130 NATURAL HISTORY. 

the movements of the wing from being heard by the wary 
mouse ; and so noiseless is their flight that they seem to 
be borne along by the wind like a tuft of thistledown. 

The Snowy Owl is properly an inhabitant of the north 
of Europe, but is also found in North America. It is a 
good fisher, snatching its prey from the water by a sudden 
grasp of the foot. It also preys on lemmings, hares, ptar- 
migans, etc., chasing and striking at them with its feet. 
It makes its nest on the ground, and lays three or four 
white eggs, of which more than two are seldom hatched. 
Its length is about two feet, and its expanse of wing is 
four feet. 

The Great-Eared Owl, or Eagle Owl, is the largest of 
the family. This powerful bird boldly attacks young 
fawns, hares and rabbits, together with small birds. It 
inhabits the north of Europe, but has been several times ob- 
served in England. It lays its eggs in the clefts of rocks 
or in ruined buildings. Its length is upwards of two feet. 

The Barn Owl affords another instance of mistaken 
persecution. This useful bird, whose carcass we so often 
see triumphantly nailed to the barn, actually feeds upon 
and destroys the rats and mice which bear it company in 
its undeserved punishment. 

Few people know what a little bird this owl really is. 
The thick, loose plumage is so deceptive that no one 
would imagine that it is hardly so large as a pigeon. The 
head, when stripped of its feathers, loses its previous 
aspect, being long and narrow, like that of a hawk. 

Its domestic habits are very curious. When irritated 
or alarmed, it snaps its beak loudly, and makes a hissing 
sound, something like that of a cat when provoked. There 
is something very cat-like in the whole aspect of the Owl 
— its round, soft-looking face, in which are set two great 
eyes that shine in the dusk of the evening, and are capa- 
ble of taking in every feeble ray of light, and its noiseless 
movements in pursuit of its prey. 



132 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



If a mouse be given to an owl, the bird seizes it across 
the back and gives it one or two smart bites, much as a 
terrier handles a rat. The mouse is then jerked upwards, 
and caught again head downwards. A second jerk sends 
the mouse half down the owl's throat, while its tail re- 
mains sticking out of the side of its bill, where it is rolled 
about as if the owl were smoking. After some time has 
been spent in this amusement, another jerk causes the 
mouse to disappear altogether, and the owl looks very 
happy and contented. But if a small bird is presented 
to it, the owl tears it up and devours it piecemeal. 

The Barn Owl lays three or four eggs upon a mass of 
those pellets which all the owls disgorge. There is a 
rough, chalky look about the eggs of the owl, which ren- 
ders them different from the eggs of all other birds, from 
which they can be distinguished by the touch alone. 
There is a peculiarity in the domestic economy of this 
owl, for it often has at the same time in the same nest 
young owls almost fledged, and eggs on which the hen 
bird is sitting. 

The length of the bird is rather more than twelve inches. 
Its color is a bright yellowish-brown, marked with dots 
and lines of various tints, the lines being generally dark 
and the dots light. When attacked it throws itself on its 
back and fights vigorously with its claws and bill. 

The Night- jar, or Goat-sucker, sometimes called the 
Fern Owl, is spread over Europe. It may be seen at the 
approach of evening, silently wheeling round the trees, 
capturing the nocturnal moths and beetles ; then occasion- 
ally settling and uttering its jarring cry. When flying, 
the bird sometimes makes its wings meet over its back, 
and brings them together with a smart snap. It makes 
no nest, but lays two mottled eggs on the bare ground. 
Its length is ten inches. The Whip-poor-Will belongs to 
this family. 

The Swift is the largest and swiftest of the Swallows. 



SAND MARTIN. 133 

It spends the whole day on the wing, wheeling with won- 
derful velocity, and occasionally soaring until it is hardly 
perceptible, but screaming so shrilly that the sound is 
plainly heard- The number of insects which it destroys 
is almost incredible ; they are retained in a kind of pouch 
under the tongue, and, when taken out, can hardly be 
pressed into a tea-spoon. They are intended for the 
young, and the supply is constantly renewed. It lays 
from two to four long white eggs, on a nest composed of 
grass, straw, feathers, silk, etc. The color of this bird is 
a dusky black. The length is eight inches, the expanse 
of wing eighteen inches, and its weight barely one ounce. 

The foot of the Swift is of a singular form, unlike that 
of any other bird. All the toes are directed forward, there 
being no hinder toe at all. Some naturalists say that the 
object of this formation is that the bird may be enabled 
to climb up the eaves under which its nest is made. 

The Chimney Martin is the commonest of its family. 
When skimming over ponds or rivers in search of insects 
the snap with which it closes its bill may easily be heard. 
In its flight it often dashes up the water with its wings, 
which action gave rise to the opinion that Swallows passed 
the winter under water, and rose in the spring. It is so 
eager after its prey that it may easily be caught with a rod 
and line baited with a fly. 

It breeds twice in the year, building a nest of mud 
against any convenient situation, and lays five eggs. The 
bird appears to return, year by year, to its old nest. The 
whole of its upper surface is a deep purplish-black, its 
forehead and throat chestnut. 

Humboldt relates that he saw a swallow perch on the 
rigging of the vessel when it was 120 miles from the land. 

The Sand Martin is the smallest of the Swallows, but 
makes its appearance before any of its brethren. It 
builds in cliffs of sandstone, boring holes three feet in 
depth, and often winding in their course, probably to 



134 NATURAL HISTORY. 

avoid a casual stone or spot too hard for its bill, which, 
although small and apparently unfitted for the task, 
makes its way through the sandstone with great rapidity. 
Where a convenient sand-cliff exists, hundreds of these 
pretty little birds may be seen working away at their 
habitations, or dashing about in the air, looking at a dis- 
tance like white butterflies, and occasionally returning to 
the rock, which is often completely honeycombed by their 
labors. 

The House Martin follows a little after the Swallow, 
and almost invariably takes possession of its old nest, 
which it repairs about May. It lays five eggs, closely 
resembling those of the Sand Martin. About September, 
immense numbers may be seen perched upon houses and 
trees preparatory to their departure. 

The Esculent Swallow, whose nests are considered 
such a delicacy among the Chinese, builds its singular 
habitation in the sides of almost inaccessible cliffs, so 
that the business of procuring them is a most dangerous 
task. The nature of the jelly-like, transparent material 
of which the nests are made is not yet known. The nests 
are chiefly found in Java. 

The magnificent family of the Trogons stands pre- emi- 
nent in beauty and brilliancy of plumage, the usual tint 
being a metallic golden-green, boldly contrasted with scar- 
let, black and brown. The toes are placed two behind and 
two before, like those of the Woodpeckers. 

The Resplendent Trogon is the most gorgeous of the 
family. Its long and gracefully-curved tail, nearly three 
feet long, the whole of the upper surface and the throat 
are a glowing green ; the breast and under parts are bright 
crimson ; the middle feathers of the tail black and the 
outer feathers white. This splendid bird is an inhabitant 
of Mexico, and was used by the Mexican nobles as an 
ornament to their head-dress. 

From its feathers the mosaic pictures of the Mexicans 



KINGFISHER. 



135 



were made. It is a very difficult bird to stuff, on account 
of the delicate texture of the skin, which is so fragile that 
it tears almost as easily as wet blotting paper. 




The Kingfisher. 



Kingfishers are distinguished from other birds by the 
peculiarities of their form. 



136 NA TUBAL HISTOR Y. 

The common Kingfisher is found in most parts of Eng- 
land. Scarcely anything more beautiful can be conceived 
than the metallic glitter of its plumage as it shoots along 
the banks of the river, or darts into the water after its strug- 
gling prey. Its usual method of fishing is by placing it- 
self on a stump or stone overhanging the water, from which 
spot it watches for the unsuspecting fish beneath. After 
a fish is caught the bird kills it by beating it several times 
against its resting place and then swallowing it head fore- 
most. 

It lays its eggs in holes bored in the banks of rivers or 
ponds, and appears to build no nest. A pair of King- 
fishers, for two successive years, inhabited a bank of a 
very small stream, little more than a drain, where no fish 
lived, nor were there any to be found within a consider- 
able distance. 

The eggs are from four to seven in number, of a pearly 
whiteness, and remarkably globular in shape. 

The Hoopoe is one of the most elegant birds. Its beau- 
tiful crest can be raised or depressed at pleasure, but is 
seldom displayed unless the bird is excited from some 
cause. Its food consists of insects, which it first batters 
and molds into an oblong mass, and then swallows with a 
peculiar jerk of the head. 

They are very common in France, and may be seen ex- 
amining old and rotten stumps for the insects that congre- 
gate in such places. There they may be seen in flocks, but 
they never seem to go over to England in greater numbers 
than one pair at a time. A curious account is given of the 
attitude assumed by the Hoopoe on perceiving a large bird in 
the air. u As soon as they perceived a raven, or even a pigeon, 
they were on their bellies in the twinkling of an eye, their 
wings stretched out by the side of the head, so that the 
large quill feathers touched the head, leaning on the back 
with the bill pointing upwards. In this curious posture 
they might be taken for an old rag I" 




Hoimi>"g-Bird a>~d Nest. 



(137) 



138 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Hoopoe lays from four to seven gray eggs in the 
hollow of a tree. Its length is one foot. 

The Humming-Bird. These little living gems are ex- 
clusively found in the New World, especially about the 
tropical parts, becoming gradually scarcer as we recede 
from the tropics in either direction. Only two species are 
known to exist in the northern parts, but in the central 
portions and in the islands about Florida they absolutely 
swarm. They glance about in the sunshine, looking like 
streaks of brilliant light ; and so rapid is the vibration of 
their fine and elastic wings that when hovering over a 
flower a humming or buzzing sound is produced, from 
which peculiarity the name of Humming-Bird has been 
given them in almost every language. Waterton's de- 
scription is very characteristic. " Though least in size, 
the glittering mantle of the Humming-Bird entitles it to 
the first place in the list of the birds of the New World. 
It may truly be called the Bird of Paradise ; and had it 
existed in the Old World it would have claimed the title 
instead of the bird which has now the honor to bear it. 
See it darting through the air almost as quick as thought! 
now it is within a yard of your face — in an instant gone — 
now it flutters from flower to flow to sip the silver dew — 
it is now a ruby — now a topaz — now an emerald — now all 
burnished gold." 

Its tongue is formed much like that of the Woodpecker, 
being curled round the head, under the skin, and thus 
capable of being darted to a considerable distance. 

Like many other little creatures, it is remarkable for its 
assurance and impudence. It is easily tamed for that very 
reason, and has been known to domesticate itself in an 
hour from the time of its capture, and even when released 
it has returned again to partake of the dainties which it 
had tasted during its captivity. 

There are an immense number of species of these ex- 
quisite birds, varying from the size of a Swift to that of a 



NIGHTINGALE. 139 

Humble-Bee. The nests are neat and beautiful, and, as 
may be imagined, exceedingly small. They are composed 
of down, cotton, etc, and are sometimes covered on the 
outside with mosses and lichens. 

The Creepers are remarkable for their long, slender bills 
and claws, adapted for climbing trees and capturing in- 
sects. The common Creeper may often be seen running 
spirally up the trunks of trees, and probing the bark with 
its bill; and so firmly do the claws hold that when shot 
it does not always fall, but remains clinging to the tree. Its 
nest is made in a decayed tree. The eggs are from seven 
to nine in number. 

The Wren shares with the robin some immunity from 
juvenile sportsmen. Although it may be fearlessly hop- 
ping about in the hedge, jerking its funny little tail, and 
playing its antics just at the muzzle of the gun, few boys 
will fire at it — a privilege for which it is difficult to give a 
reason, except, perhaps, the assertion that u The robin and 
the wren are God's cock and hen;" and although why 
these two quarrelsome birds should be selected it is diffi- 
cult to say. Perhaps the Robin enjoys his immunity from 
the " Babes in the Wood," and the Wren makes a conveni- 
ent rhyme. 

The nest of the Wren is built in any convenient cranny; 
any ivy-covered tree, the thatch of a barn, or a warm 
scare-crow, are all used by this fearless little bird. The 
nest is usually of an oven-shape, always covered on the 
outside with some material resembling the color of the 
objects round it, such as green moss if built among ivy, 
or brown lichen if built on a rock or in the fork of a with- 
ered branch. The eggs are six or eight in number. 

The Nightingale. The wild and spiritual melody of 
its marvelous notes sounds comparatively weak unless 
backed by the accompaniments of night and tranquillity ; 
for its inimitable song loses great part of its beauty when 
uttered by day, deadened and confused with other sounds. 



140 NATURAL HISTORY. 

In many counties of England its sweet and almost 
nightly strains are frequently heard. The fields and col- 
lege gardens of Oxford are full of Nightingales. The male 
is the vocalist. 

The Warblers are spread over almost the entire globe. 
The Blackcap, almost a rival of the Nightingale, is recog- 
nized by the black color of the crown of the head. Only 
the males are decorated, the crown of the head of the female 
being dark brown. Its sweet notes are poured forth from 
the concealment of some thicket or tuft of trees, where it 
trusts to the density of the foliage to elude discovery. Like 
the American Mocking-Bird, it can imitate the songs of 
other birds with such perfect inflection that it is almost 
impossible to detect the imposture. Among bushes and 
brambles it builds its nest, which is made of dried grass, 
moss and hairs. The eggs are five in number. Its length 
is nearly six inches. 

The Golden-crested Regulus is one of the smallest 
of British birds. Fir plantations are its favorite resort, 
and there it may be seen hopping about the branches, or 
running round them, head downwards, in search of the 
insects hidden beneath the bark. Its name is derived 
from the orange-colored tuft of feathers on the crown of 
its head, for which reason it is often called the Kinglet. 
Its note is weak, but very pleasing, and much resembles 
that of the common Wren. The female is very bold while 
sitting, and will permit close observation without quitting 
the nest. The nest itself is an object of great beauty. It 
is usually placed on the under side of a fir branch, shel- 
tered by the overhanging foliage, and sometimes further 
protected by a large bunch of cones forming a kind of 
roof over it. The eggs are from six to ten in number. Its 
length is over three inches. 

The Redbreast, or Robin Redbreast, as it is termed, 
has, by its fearless conduct, earned itself golden opinions 
from all kinds of men. Every nation seems to protect it; 



I8^'/J>^U>^ -:" 




Group of Tits. 



142 NATURAL HISTORY. 

and it lives unharmed, possibly on account of its oft-told 
charity towards the Babes in the Wood. 

In the Winter, when the berries are gone, insects dead, 
and the worms hidden under the hard, frozen soil, then the 
Robin flies for refuge to the habitations of man for shelter 
and food. It is very amusing to see the half- trusting, half- 
fearful look with which it hops to the window-sill for the 
first time. After a w T hile it becomes bold, and taps at the 
window, if the expected crumbs are not thrown out. Be- 
fore very long it ventures to enter the room, hops about 
on the table, and quite seems to consider as a right what 
was first merely a favor. When once established it is 
very jealous, and will not suffer a friend to be partaker 
of the same comforts, but attacks him with the greatest 
fury ; so the unfortunate second comer has to wait shiver- 
ing outside the window, with his feathers puffed up, and 
his little eyes glancing from the depths of his plumage. 

The nest of this bird is built in the crevice of an old 
ivied wall, in a bank, sheltered by the roots of a tree, or in 
a mass of ivy clinging to an old tree. The eggs are five in 
number. 

The birds of the family of the Tits are remarkable for 
their active habits. There are few who have not seen these 
interesting little birds twisting round the branches, per- 
fectly unconcerned at the presence of the spectator, some- 
times hanging head downwards, sometimes chasing an un- 
lucky beetle along the bark, and invariably catching it, in 
spite of its swift limbs and active wings ; sometimes twist- 
ing off a bud, and pulling it to pieces with marvelous ra- 
pidity, in order to secure the lurking caterpillar within ; 
sometimes pecking away at a piece of loose bark, and ex- 
tracting an unwilling spider by one of its legs left incau- 
tiously projecting from its lurking-place. 

The little Blue Titmouse is well known. It is most 
amusingly courageous, and from the strenuous resistance 
it offers to its capturer, has acquired from rustic boys the 



WAGTAILS. 143 

name of " Billy-biter." The angry hiss of the female has 
frequently caused an intruding hand to be rapidly with- 
drawn, for the sound is so like the hiss of a snake, and the 
little beak is so sharp, that few have the courage to pro- 
ceed with their investigations. A pair of these birds built 
their nest in the coping of a railway station in England, 
not two feet from the fiery and noisy engines, w T hich were 
constantly passing. The men respected the courage of the 
little birds, and this whole brood was hatched and suffered 
to fly at liberty. 

The utter contempt which this bird entertains for fire- 
arms often leads to its destruction, for when the school- 
boy has been wasting his powder and shot in attempting 
to hit larks and such large game, he consoles himself by 
shooting the unfortunate Titmouse, who will allow him to 
come so close that few vestiges of it remain except a tuft 
of blue feathers. 

It lays from six to eight eggs. Its length is about four 
and a half inches. 

The Wagtails, so named from the almost incessant vi- 
bration of their tails, are exclusively confined to the Old 
World. The Pied Wagtail is the most common of its 
race. We often see it pass rapidly, with its peculiar dip- 
ping flight; it settles on the ground and wags its tail; it 
runs a few paces, and wags its tail again : pecks at an in- 
sect, and its tail vibrates. It does not hop, like the War- 
blers, Finches, etc., but runs with great rapidity, and alto- 
gether looks very like a diminutive Magpie. Sand-banks 
by the sides of rivers are the usual resort of these birds, 
where they may almost always be seen, running about by 
the water's edge, sometimes snatching at an incautious 
May-fly, sometimes wading into the water after a caddus- 
worm or a stray grub, or pecking at a little minnow, which 
has come coo near the surface — and then it flies off to 
another spot to repeat the same manoeuvres. This bird 
also greatly frequents pastures, and may be seen running 



144 NATURAL HISTORY. 

about among the cows in the most nonchalant manner 
imaginable, catching the flies that torment those animals 
in the summer, or flying off to its unfinished nest with a 
beak full of hairs. Their nests are built near the water, in 
crevices among stones, or in the hole of a wall. Frequently 
when stones are piled by a wet quarry, several nests may 
be found in one heap of stones. The eggs are four or five 
in number. Its length is over seven inches. 

The Water Ouzel, or Dipper, is found principally in 
hilly places where there are clear and rapid streams. There 
it may be seen to go through its far-famed movements un- 
der the water, which have given rise to so much contro- 
versy. It dives for considerable distances with apparent 
ease, and has a habit of dipping and rising repeatedly, 
from which practice its name has been derived. 

The nest is usually built by the water-side, and is care- 
fully concealed. In appearance it is not unlike that of 
the Wren, being made of intertwined mosses, with an en- 
trance at the side. It lays five largish eggs, of a pure 
white. Its length is about seven inches. 

The Song-Thrush, Throstle, or Mavis, is deservedly 
considered one of our best singing-birds. Its powerful and 
rich notes may be heard in January, when most of the 
other singing birds are either silent or have departed. Its 
nest is built almost before any other bird has commenced, 
and may often be seen conspicuously placed in a bush 
some time before the leaves have begun to sprout. In 
order to defend the callow young from the cold winds of 
the season when they are hatched, the nest is more sub- 
stantial than birds are accustomed to build, being thickly 
plastered within with a coating of mud, effectually keeping 
out the chilly blasts. Were it only for its singing powers, 
the Thrush would deserve protection ; but the services it 
renders to the gardener in devouring insects, snails and 
other destructive creatures, entitle it to a double share of 
regard. 



MO CKIXG-BIRD. 145 

It is amusing to watch a Thrush listening for the sound 
of the earth-worm working his way through the ground, 
or the gnawing teeth of the cockchaffer grub. The grub 
he unearths and devours without further ceremony, but 
he knows that if he is not cautious, the earth-worm will 
withdraw itself out of his reach. He therefore gives seve- 
ral hops near the worm, which, fancying that it hears its 
enemy the mole pursuing it, comes to the surface, and is 
instantly seized in triumph by the crafty thrush. 

It clears the shells from snails by beating them against 
a stone, and when it has found a place for that purpose, 
it returns to the same spot with its prey, so that heaps of 
broken snail-shells may often be found where the Thrushes 
have been at work. 

The eggs of the Thrush are five in number, of a bluish- 
green color, spotted with deep reddish brown. Sometimes 
the spots are absent. 

The Blackbird is a delightful songster, whose jetty hue 
and orange-tawny bill are well-known. It is a very shy 
bird, and if disturbed in a hedge, has a habit of darting 
through it, and then escaping on the other side, uttering a 
sharp cry of alarm. Its habits are like those of the Thrush, 
especially in its zeal for unearthing the cockchaffer grubs, 
and possibly for eating cherries when they are ripe. 

Its nest is built usually at the foot of a hedge, frequently 
in the very centre of a holly bush, safe from most enemies, 
except weasles and school-boys. 

The eggs are five in number, of a bluish-green color, 
spotted with brown. 

The Mockixg-Bird is a native of most parts of America. 
This wonderful bird stands pre-eminent in powers of 
song. Not only are its natural notes bold and spirited, 
but it has the faculty of imitating with deceptive fidelity 
every sound it hears. To its flexible organs, the harsh 
setting of a saw, the song of a Nightingale, the creaking of a 
wheel, the whistled tune of a passer-by, the full andmel- 

10 



146 NATURAL HISTORY. 

low notes of the Thrush, the barking of a dog, the crowing 
of a cock, and the savage scream of the Bald Eagle, are 
each equally easy of execution, and follow one another 
with such marvellous rapidity that few can believe that 
the insignificant brown bird before them is the sole author 
of these varied sounds. The Virginian Nightingale and 
the Canary hear their exquisite modulations performed 
with such superior execution that the vanquished song- 
sters are silent from mere mortification, while the tri- 
umphant Mocking-Bird only redoubles his efforts. Wilson 
in describing this bird says : " His expanded wings and 
tail glistening with white, and the buoyant gayety of his 
action arresting the eye, as his song does most irresistibly 
the ear, he sweeps round with ecstasy, and mounts and de- 
scends as his song swells or dies away. He often deceives 
the sportsman, and sends him in search of birds that are 
not perhaps within miles of him, but whose notes he ex- 
actly imitates ; even birds themselves are frequently im- 
posed upon by this admirable mimic, and are decoyed by 
the fancied calls of their mates, or dive with precipitation 
into the depth of thickets at the scream of what they sup- 
pose to be the Sparrow-hawk.'' 

While sitting on its eggs it is an exceedingly courageous 
bird, attacking without discrimination man, dogs, or any 
animal who may approach too near the nest. But the 
black snake is the special object of its vengeance. The 
snake, who has perhaps just arrived at the vicinity of 
the nest, and is contemplating a pleasant breakfast on the 
young or eggs, is violently attacked by the enraged Mock- 
ing-Bird, who, by repeated blow T s on the head, generally 
destroys its enemy, and then, mounting on a bush, pours 
forth a triumphant song of victory. 

The nest is made generally in a bush or apple-tree, fre- 
quently close to houses, as the bird is protected by the in- 
habitants. The Mocking-Bird is often kept tame, in which 
case, so far from its imitative powers showing any decrease, 



148 NATURAL HISTORY. 

the variety of domestic sounds heard about the house is 
often perplexing. 

The Spotted Flycatcher may be considered as the 
type of the entire family. It may be seen in gardens and 
orchards, going through the evolutions that have given it 
its name. From some elevated spot it watches for a pass- 
ing insect, on seeing which it darts from its post, secures 
the insect in the air, and returns to the same spot by a 
short circular flight. It is not a timid bird, and will per- 
mit an observer to stand quite close to it, provided that he 
does not disturb it. Its note is a weak chirp, and even that 
is not often heard. 

The nest is built usually in holes of trees or walls, or 
sometimes between a branch of a wall fruit-tree and the 
wall itself. The eggs are five in number. Its length is 
about five inches. 

The Shrike or Butcher-Birds well deserve their name, 
as they live upon insects and small birds, which they kill, 
and afterwards transfix with a thorn, preparatory to de- 
vouring them. They take their prey much after the same 
manner as the Flycatchers, by darting on it from some 
place of concealment. 

The Great Gray Shrike feeds upon mice, birds, frogs 
and other small animals. After pouncing upon its prey, 
the Shrike, by a few blows on the head from its powerful 
bill, destroys it. It is then carried to the nearest hedge, 
impaled on a thorn, and the Shrike devours it at his 
leisure. Large insects are treated in the same manner. 
The object of this impalement is apparently that the crea- 
tures thus suspended should become tender or "high." 
The bird, after hanging a lizard or a mouse in this fashion, 
generally goes off and fetches another, always preferring to 
eat those which have remained longest on the thorn, and 
which are, as<it were, cooked in the sun. 

There is a strong bodily resemblance between this 
Shrike and the Mocking-Bird, the distinction lying gener- 



MAGPIE. 149 

ally in the outline ; while the plumage is so similar, that 
many persons have actually confused the two birds, giving 
to the one the habits of the other. Moreover, the resem- 
blance is not merely in outward form ; the Gray Shrike 
can also imitate the notes of other birds, and often does so. 

The name Excubitor,or Sentinel, is given it from its habit 
of watching for birds of prey, and chattering loudly di- 
rectly it perceives them, thereby proving that, like most 
other tyrants, it has a great objection to suffering any in- 
jury itself. 

The nest is built on trees, and contains about six eggs. 
Its length is about ten inches. 

The Jay, so well known for the beautiful blue markings 
on its wings, is rather a shy bird, preferring to reside in 
the thickest woods, and seldom coming into the open coun- 
try. It is easily tamed when young, and is very amusing 
when domesticated. 

It possesses great talents for mimicry. It has been 
known to imitate the sound of a saw, the bleat of a lamb 
and the neighing of a horse with the most perfect accuracy. 
Although its natural voice is harsh and grating, yet it can 
imitate the sweet notes of singing birds, such as the Green- 
finch, with wonderful fidelity. It has also frequently been 
taught to articulate words. 

The name of Glandarius has been given to the Jay, be- 
cause it feeds on vegetable productions, such as acorns, 
etc., more than the true Crows. It is also partial to fruits, 
especially ripe cherries. It is also said to devour eggs and 
young birds. 

Its nest is built about twenty feet from the ground, the 
upper part of a thick bush being preferred. The eggs are 
five or six in number. Its length is nearly 14 inches. 

The Magpie seems to rival the Parrot in the proud title 
of the Monkey of the Birds (the Raven being the ornitho- 
logical baboon). Its thieving and hiding propensities are 
proverbial. 



150 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Its nest is built on a high tree, and curiously defended 
with thorns, having a small hole just large enough to ad- 
mit the owners, so that the liberal use of a pocket-knife is 
frequently requisite in order to obtain the eggs. The nest 
is covered with a dome of thorns, and its interior is de- 
fended by a coating of mud, worked smooth. The eggs 
are five in number. Its length is about eighteen inches. 

The Raven is very common in Europe, Asia and 
America, but is now seldom seen except in a domesticated 
state. It is frequently found in the Hebrides. In those isl- 
ands it lives principally on carrion of various kinds, such 
as a dead sheep or lamb, whose death the Raven is accused 
with some justice of hastening, and on fishes or cetaceous 
animals which have been cast on shore by the waves. In 
these cases the Raven conducts itself much in the manner 
of the Vulture. It commences by taking out the eye and 
tongue, and then proceeds to tear open the abdomen, 
operations for which its sharp and powerful bill seems 
quite as well fitted as the hooked beak of the rapacious 
birds. It is a very crafty bird, and can with difficulty be 
approached ; but by laying a dead carcass near its haunts, 
and being carefully concealed, it may be seen cautiously 
approaching ; first, perching on an eminence, it looks care- 
fully round ; then advancing with a sidelong step, ex- 
amines its expected prey. When fully satisfied, it pecks 
out the eyes, and proceeds to satiate itself with food. The 
Raven seems to revel in storms, and to be deterred by no 
inclemency of weather from seeking its prey. 

Although formerly so plentiful that innumerable omens 
were drawn from its appearance, its croaking, or its flight, 
it has almost become extinct. 

A Raven used to watch a gardener taking particular 
pains to prop up and secure a valuable plant. His labor 
was always in vain, for the Raven, with a sidelong step and 
an unconcerned air, as if he were thinking of anything 
but the plant, would sidle by it, when one wrench of his 



152 NATURAL HISTORY. 

iron bill laid the plant on the earth, and the Raven moved 
off with an air of innocence. The lady to whom the gar- 
den belonged was quite afraid of the bird, and declared 
that she almost believed that it was possessed by some evil 
spirit. It used to walk behind her, so that she could never 
see it, for when she turned round, the Raven hopped round 
too, and kept himself completely out of her sight. At 
last it became so very mischievous that it was sent away. 

It has a great capacity for imitating sounds, and can be 
taught to pronounce whole sentences, or sing songs with 
wonderful accuracy. 

In the northern parts of Scotland it makes its nest on 
high rocks, but not unfrequently builds on the summit of 
a tall tree. The nest is a large, irregular structure of heath, 
grass, wool and feathers, and sea-weed, if it builds near 
the shore. It lays from four to seven eggs. Its length is 
26 inches, and the expanse of wing nearly 60 inches. 

The Rook inhabits almost every part of Europe, and is 
very common in England, where it lives in a kind of semi- 
domestication, usually inhabiting a grove of trees near a 
house, or in a park, where it is protected by the owmer, 
although he makes it pay for this accommodation by shoot- 
ing the young ones every year. Apparently in consequence 
of this annual persecution, the Rook has an intense horror 
of guns, perceiving them at a great distance. While feed- 
ing in flocks in the fields, or following the plowman in his 
course, and devouring the worms and grubs turned up by 
the share, the Rook has always a sentinel planted in a 
neighboring tree, who instantly gives the alarm at the sight 
of a gun, or other suspicious-looking object. 

The good which the Rook does by devouring the grubs 
of the cockchaffer and the tipulus, or daddy-long-legs, both 
of which are exceedingly injurious to the crops, more than 
. compensates for the damage it sometimes causes by pull- 
ing up young corn, or newly-set potato cuttings ; in the 
latter case more, I believe, to get at the wireworms, which 



crow. 153 

crowd to slices of potato, than to eat the vegetable itself. 
In the fruit season, the Rook, like most other birds, likes 
to have his share of the cherries, pears and walnuts, but 
may be easily kept away by the occasional sight of a 

Towards evening the Rooks may be seen flying in long 
lines to their resting-place. They then perform sundry 
evolutions in the air, and finally settle to rest. 

Round the base of the Rook's beak is a whitish-looking 
skin, denuded of feathers, the reason or cause of which is 
not very obvious. A white variety of the Rook is some- 
times seen. 

The eggs of the bird are five in number. Its length is 
nineteen inches. 

The Jackdaw is a well-known bird. It does not build 
in the branches of trees like the rook, but prefers holes in 
decayed trees or old buildings, particularly frequenting 
church-towers and steeples. The Jackdaw feeds upon 
almost any substance that it can find. It kills mice with 
a single blow of its beak, and then devours them piece- 
meal. Grasshoppers, beetles, etc., are also killed by a 
squeeze across the thorax, and the head, wings and legs 
are twisted off before the bird begins to eat them. It treats 
bees, wasps and other stinged insects with much more 
caution. The feathers upon the crown of its head are of 
a grayish-white color, a peculiarity instantly distinguish- 
ing it from the Rook. It is frequently kept tame, and is 
very amusing in captivity. 

The eggs are of a lighter color than those of the Rook, 
smaller and more sparingly spotted. Its length is four- 
teen inches. 

The Crow, or Carrion Crow, as it is erroneously called, 
seldom feeds on carrion ; for poor indeed would be his 
meals were he dependent on dead sheep or horses for a 
livelihood. Possibly the name was given as a distinction 
between it and the Rook. Waterton states that the flesh 



154 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of the Carrion Crow is just as good as that of the Rook, and 
relates how he once served up a pie of these birds to some 
friends, who thought them pigeons. It will also eat cher- 
ries and walnuts like the Rook, and when the supply of in- 
sects has failed, it will then turn its attention to the duck- 
pond or farm-yard, and carry off a young duckling or 
chicken. 

It also carries off eggs, by pouncing upon them, and 
driving its bill through the shell, and even mice and rats 
are not unaccustomed food. 

The nests of this bird are placed on the summit of some 
tall tree, and contain about five eggs. Its length is nine- 
teen inches. 

The Chough is rather larger than the Jackdaw, and is 
principally distinguished by the red hue of its bill and 
legs. It inhabits the counties of the western coast of 
England. When tame, it shows a very inquisitive dispo- 
sition, examining every novelty with the greatest attention. 
It builds its nest in the cavities of high cliffs, and lays four 
or five eggs. Its length is seventeen inches. 

The Emerald Bird of Paradise. — This most gorgeous 
and elegant bird was once the subject of much discussion 
between naturalists. The natives of New Guinea were 
accustomed to dry them, having first cut off their legs, 
and then to offer them for sale. In this footless state they 
reached Europe, where it was universally stated that the 
bird lived always in the air, buoyed up by the lightness 
of its feathery covering ; that the shoulders were used as 
its nest; that the only rest it took was by suspending itself 
from a branch by the filamentary feathers of the tail; that 
its food was the morning dew ; together with many other 
conjectures not less ingenious than amusing. 

This bird is about the size of a Jay. Its body, breast 
and lower parts are of a deep rich brown, the front set 
close with black feathers shot with green ; the throat is of 
a rich golden green ; the head yellow ; the sides of the 




Emerald Bjrd of Paradise. King Bird of Paradise. 

(155) 



156 NATURAL HISTORY. 

tail are clothed with a splendid plume of long, downy 
feathers, of a soft yellow color. By these are placed two 
long filamentous shafts, which extend nearly two feet in 
length. 

Of these beautiful feathers the bird is so proud that it 
will not suffer the least speck of dirt to remain upon 
them, and it is constantly examining its plumage to see 
that there are no spots on it. When in its wild state, it 
always flies and sits with its face to the wind, lest its ele- 
gant filmy plumes should be disarranged. 

So far from living exclusively on dew, it eats no small 
amount of insects, such as grasshoppers, which it will not 
touch if dead, and commences its repast by stripping off 
the legs and wings. When in confinement, it also eats 
boiled rice, plantains and other vegetables ; but in the 
wild state it seems to feed mostly on the seeds of the teak- 
tree, and a kind of fig. There are several species of Para- 
dise Birds. 

The Baltimore Oriole is an inhabitant of the whole of 
Northern America, its range extending from Canada to 
Mexico — even as far south as Brazil. 

It is a migratory bird, arriving about the beginning of 
May, and departing towards the beginning of September. 
The name of Baltimore Oriole has been given to it because 
its colors of black and orange are those of the arms be- 
longing to Lord Baltimore, to whom Maryland formerly 
belonged. This species is remarkably familiar and fear- 
less of man, hanging its beautiful pensile nest upon the 
garden trees, and even venturing into the streets wherever 
a green tree flourishes, and chanting its wild, mellow notes 
in close proximity to the sounds and sights of a populous 
city. 

The nest of the Baltimore Oriole is most ingeniously 
woven. The materials of which this beautiful habitation 
is made are flax, various kinds of vegetable fibres, wool 
and hair, matted together, so as to resemble felt in consist- 



BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 157 

ency. A number of long horse-hairs are passed completely 
through the fibres, sewing it firmly together with large and 
irregular but strong and judiciously-placed stitching. In 
one of these nests Wilson found that several of the hairs 
used for this purpose measured two feet in length. The 
nest is in the form of a long purse, and at the bottom is 
arranged a heap of soft cow's-hair and similar substances, 
in which the eggs find a warm resting-place. The female 
bird seems to be the chief architect, receiving a constant 
supply of materials from her mate, and occasionally re- 
jecting the fibres or hairs which he may bring, and send- 
ing him off for another load better to her taste. 

Since the advent of civilization, the Baltimore Oriole 
has availed himself largely of his advantages, and instead 
of troubling himself with a painful search after individual 
hairs, wherewith to sew his hammock together, keeps a 
look-out for any bits of stray thread that may be thrown 
away by human sempstresses, and makes use of them in 
the place of the hairs. So sharp-sighted is the bird, and 
so quick are his movements, that during the bleaching 
season the owners of the thread are forced to keep a con- 
stant watch upon their property as it lies upon the grass 
or hangs upon the boughs, knowing that the Oriole is ever 
ready to pounce upon such valuable material, and straight- 
way to weave it into his nest. Pieces of loose string, skeins 
of silk, or even the bands with which young grafts are 
tied, are equally sought by this ingenious bird, and often 
purloined, to the discomfiture of the needlewoman or the 
gardener. The average size of the nest is six or seven 
inches in depth, and three or four in diameter. Wilson 
thinks that the bird improves in nest-building by practice, 
and that the best specimens of architecture are the work 
of the oldest birds. Its food seems to be almost entirely 
of an animal nature, and to consist of caterpillars, beetles 
and other insects, most of them injurious to the farmer. 

The coloring of this bird is as follows : The head and 



158 NATURAL HISTORY, 

throat, together with the upper part of the back and the 
wings, are deep black, with the exception of an orange bar 
upon the shoulders. The lower part of the back and the 
whole of the under surface are bright orange, warming 
into scarlet on the breast. The tail is rather curiously 
colored. The female is dull black upon the upper parts 
and mottled with brownish yellow, each feather being 
marked with that tint upon the edges. The lower part of 
the back and all the under portions of the body are dull 
orange, and the tail is mostly olive yellow. The wings 
are dull brown, and marked with 3'ellowish white upon 
the coverts. 

From these colors the bird has derived the names of 
Golden Robin and Fire Bird. Its total length is about 
seven inches. 

The Common Starling is well-known both for its beauty 
and its singular method of flight. When a flock of Star- 
lings begin to settle for the night they wheel round the 
place selected with great accuracy. Suddenly, as if by 
word of command, the whole flock turn their sides to the 
spectator, and, with a great whirring of wings, the whole 
front and shape of the flock is altered. No body of sol- 
diers could be better wheeled or countermarched than are 
these flocks of Starlings. 

It lives principally among old buildings, and is very 
fond of gaining admittance into dovecotes, where it is a 
harmless visitor, and may be suffered to remain without 
detriment to the pigeons or their eggs. Its nest is made 
usually in a hole in a wall, sometimes in a decayed tree, 
and contains five eggs of a very delicate, uniformly pale 
blue. 

There is never any difficulty in discovering the nest of 
the Starling, for if it builds in a hole of a wall it generally 
leaves several straws sticking out, as if to indicate the 
locality ; and when it goes to take food to its young, both 
parent and children set up such an outcry that it may be 




1, Hawfinch; 2, Greenfinch; 3, Linnet: 4, Brambling ; 
5, Chaffinch. ( 159 ) 



160 NATURAL HISTORY. 

heard a long way off. Consequently, there are few eggs 
so prevalent in the string of the country boy as those of 
the Starling. 

We now arrive at the very large and interesting family 
of Finches. None of the species are large, and most of 
them are excellent songsters. Their beaks are conical, 
and fitted for the destruction of corn, peas, etc. 

The Grosbeak, or Hawfinch, well deserves its generic 
name of " Berry-breaker," for its beak is capable of break- 
ing the hard kernels of the cherry, and even those of the 
olive. It is not a very rare bird, although it is but seldom 
seen. This fact is accounted for by its great shyness and 
dread of mankind. It seldom ventures out of the thick 
woods in which it delights to dwell. 

The nest of this bird is very shallow, and slightly put 
together, being hardly superior to that of the Wood-pigeon. 
The eggs are from four to six in number. Its length is 
seven inches. 

The Chaffinch, or Piefinch, as it is often called, is 
chiefly remarkable for the beautiful nest which it con- 
structs. The forks of a thorn or wild crab-tree are favor- 
ite places for the nest, which is composed of mosses, hair, 
wool and feathers, covered on the exterior with lichen 
and mosses, so exactly resembling the bough on which the 
nest is placed that the eye is often deceived by its appear- 
ance. In the nest four or five very pretty eggs are laid. 

The name Coelebs* or Bachelor, is given to this bird, 
because the females quit the country about November, 
leaving large flocks of males behind them. 

The Goldfinch, or Thistlefinch, so called on account 
of its fondness for the down of the thistle, is one of our 
most beautiful birds. Where thistles abound, small flocks 
of Goldfinches may be seen flying from hedge to hedge, 
and occasionally pecking the white tops of the thistles. 
The tufted seed of the dandelion, groundsel and other 
plants is also eaten by the Goldfinch. 



YELLOW-HAMMER. 161 

In captivity it is very tame, and can be trained to per- 
form a multitude of tricks, the most common of which 
are drawing its own food and water with a chain and 
bucket, or firing a gun when commanded. The nest is 
very beautiful, being mostly made of wool and down 
from various plants, and is usually placed on the extrem- 
ity of a spray. The eggs are small, of a whitish tint, 
spotted with orange brown. 

The Common Linnet frequents commons and neglected 
pastures. Its song is very sweet, and many bird-fanciers 
suppose that the mixed breed of a Canary and a Linnet has 
a sweeter song than either bird. 

Its nest is usually built in the centre of a large and dense 
bush ; the eggs are five in number. 

The Canary. This pretty little songster is so well 
known as to need but little description, particularly as 
there are no opportunities of studying its natural course 
of life. From the manner in which the Canary is usually 
reared it is evident that the bird has but very little oppor- 
tunity of exhibiting its natural instincts. 

The courageous, impudent, quarrelsome Sparrow is 
known to all. There are few who have not seen this little 
bird, when pressed by the cold in the winter, come to the 
window, expecting his donation of crumbs. It is very 
fond of grain of various kinds, and does some damage to 
the farmer, but the destruction of caterpillars by the bird 
more than compensates for the loss of the grain. The 
little impertinent bird has no scruple in perching on the 
pig's trough and partaking of his dinner, or in mixing 
with fowl and taking its share of their provisions ; and on 
a newly-thatched house it absolutely revels. Dozens of 
Sparrows may then be seen pecking and pulling at the 
straws in high enjoyment. The nest of the House Spar- 
row is usually built in holes of roofs. The eggs are 
speckled black and white and very variable. 

The Yellow-Hammer or Yellow Bunting is a very 

11 



162 NATURAL HISTORY. 

delicately-marked little bird, very common in hedges, 
where it flits before the traveller, always keeping about 
twenty yards in front. It makes its nest on the ground 
and lays five eggs curiously scribbled over with dark 
chocolate lines, as if a child had been trying to write 
Arabic on the eggs. 

The Laeks are known by their very long hind toe. The 
Skylark, which pours forth its animated song while sus- 
pended high in the air, is an inhabitant of most parts of 
Europe, Asia and North Africa, but is not found in America. 
A story is told of a Skylark that was brought to America 
by an emigrant, and which used to collect crowds of de- 
lighted listeners round its cage. An English settler, w r ho 
happened to be passing by while the bird was singing, 
was so affected by the reminiscences which its song called 
up that he offered his horse and cart for the bird on the 
spot. The bird afterwards passed into other hands, but 
refused to sing until its cage was hung up in the open air. 

The nest is made on the ground, frequently in the print 
of a horse's foot, and contains five eggs. There are gene- 
rally two broods in the year : one in May and the other in 
July or August. Immense numbers of these birds are 
caught annually and sent to the London markets. The 
mode of catching the Larks is generally by means of a 
number of horsehair nooses attached to a long line. Food 
is scattered among the nooses, and the Larks in reaching 
the food get their limbs entangled in the horsehair, and 
either strangle themselves or are held until the fowler 
comes to take them out. 

The Bullfinch affords a singular instance of the power 
of art on the song of birds. The natural note of the Bull- 
finch is low, and can only be heard at a short distance; 
but when well trained the bird whistles, or " pipes," as it 
is called, any melody which has been taught it in a fine 
flute-like tone. A good piping Bullfinch sells at a very 
high price. The method of teaching is to confine the 




164 NATURAL HISTORY. 

birds in a dark room, and, before their food is given, to 
play the air that they have to learn on an instrument 
called a bird-organ. The birds soon begin to imitate the 
notes, and by degrees the whole tune is learned. Some 
trainers substitute a small clarionet for the bird-organ. 

When in captivity the Bullfinch is very sociable, and 
soon learns to know his owners, and to come to them when 
called. Its nest is made in thick bushes or fir-trees. The 
eggs are of a pale greenish-white, spotted with orange 
brown. The name of Bullfinch is given to it on account 
of the large proportionate size of its head and neck. When 
in captivity, its plumage sometimes turns black, the result 
of feeding it too profusely with hemp-seed. 

The Rhinoceros Hornbill. This singular and almost 
startling family comprises but few species, which are all 
natives of India and Africa. The enormous bill, with its 
incomprehensible appendage, although of course heavy, is 
really much lighter than it looks, being composed of a 
kind of light honey-combed structure. The upper pro- 
tuberance is hollow, and it is supposed to serve as a sound- 
ing-board to increase the reverberations of the air while 
the bird is uttering its peculiar roaring cry. 

In spite of the apparently unwieldy bill the bird is very 
active, and hops about the branches of the trees with much 
ease. The appendage to the upper mandible is small when 
the bird is young, and only attains its enormous size when 
the Hornbill has reached its full growth. The bill of the 
Hoopoes presents a somewhat analogous peculiarity, as 
when the bird is young the bill is short and pointed, and 
increases with the size of the bird. From this circum- 
stance naturalists imagine that there is an affinity between 
the Hornbills and Hoopoes. 

The Hornbills seem to be omnivorous, fruits, eggs, birds, 
reptiles, etc., forming their food. The African Hornbills 
are extremely fond of nutmegs, and are, on that account, 
said to be peculiarly delicate eating. 






CLIMBING BIRDS. 



165 



The Rhinoceros Hornbill is a native of India and the 
Indian islands. The length of its bill is usually about 
ten inches. 




V^vV^V^x 



Toucan. 



The Climbing Birds now engage our attention. Under 
this order are placed Toucans, Parrots, Woodpeckers and 



166 NA TUBAL HI8T0R Y. 

Cuckoos. The feet of these birds have two toes in front 
and two behind. 

The Toucans are natives of South America. Their 
enormous bill is light, being chiefly composed of a honey- 
comb structure. It seems to be very sensitive and well- 
supplied with nerves, as the bird not only appears to enjoy 
holding meat or fruits with the tip of its bill, but has been 
seen to scratch that organ with its foot, plainly proving 
that there must be sensation. It seems to be omnivorous, 
but is particularly fond of mice and small birds, which it 
kills by a powerful squeeze, then strips, and finally pulls 
to pieces and devours, having previously reduced them to 
a shapeless mass by repeated lateral wrenches with its 
enormous and saw-like bill. 

When sleeping the Toucan takes great care of its bill, 
packing it away and covering it carefully with the feathers 
of its back, and altogether presents the appearance of a 
large round ball of feathers. The body is about eighteen 
inches in length. These birds, together with the Hoopoes 
and Hornbills, have a habit of throwing their food down 
their throats with a peculiar jerk of the bill. 

In the Macaw family the construction of the bill is very 
remarkable. As the curved tip of the bill would pre- 
vent the bird from opening it wide enough to admit its 
food, the upper mandible is united to the skull by a kind 
of hinge-joint, of equal strength and flexibility. When 
climbing among the branches of trees, or about their cages, 
the Parrots invariably make great use of their hooked 
bills in assisting themselves both in ascending and de- 
scending. The Cross-Bills have been observed to climb in 
much the same way. 

The Parrots are said to be very long lived; some have 
certainly been known to live upwards of eighty years in 
captivity, and may be imagined to exceed that period in 
a wild state. The Macaws are natives of South America. 
The blue and yellow Macaw inhabits the countries of 



WOODPECKERS. 167 

Brazil, Guiana and Surinam, living principally on the 
banks of rivers. 

The Ringed Parrakeet is frequently seen domesticated, 
where its pleasing manners and gentle disposition render 
it a favorite. It seems to be fond of ripe walnuts, divided 
in halves : and while it is picking out the kernel continually 
utters a short clucking sound indicative of pleasure. 

It soon learns to repeat words and short sentences, and 
to speak with tolerable distinctness. Sometimes, when 
excited, it utters most ear-piercing screams, and always 
appears to practice any new accomplishment when it thinks 
no one is within hearing. 

The color of the bird is green, and a rose-colored band 
round its neck gives it the name of the Rose-ringed Par- 
rakeet. The bill is red. 

The Cockatoos are remarkable for the powdery surface 
of their wings, and the crest on the head, which can be 
raised or depressed at pleasure. The Sulphur- crested 
Cockatoo is an inhabitant of New Guinea. Its color is 
white, and the crest is of a sulphur yellow. Its white 
plumage glancing among the dense dark foliage of its na- 
tive forests, imparts a wonderful beauty to the scene. This 
Cockatoo is easily tamed, and is of a very affectionate dis- 
position. When in captivity it has been known to live to 
the age of 120 years. Its nest is built in hollow trees and 
the crevices of rocks. The eggs are white. Its length is 
about eighteen inches. 

The Woodpeckers, whose name indicates their habits, 
are widely spread, being found in all quarters of the globe, 
except Australia. They subsist on insects and grubs, which 
they dig out of trees or discover under the bark. For this 
purpose their whole structure is admirably adapted. The 
bill is long, sharp and powerful, and the formation of the 
feet and legs is such that the bird can grasp the tree firmly 
with the feet, while swinging with the force of his whole 
body against it. Another most singular point in the 



168 NATURAL HISTORY. 

Woodpeckers is the method by which they are enabled to 
thrust the tongue deep into the crevices and bring out any 
insects that may happen to be there. The tongue is con- 
nected with two elastic ligaments, which are inserted near 
the juncture of the upper mandible with the skull. From 
thence they sweep round the back of the head, and passing 
under the lower mandible, enable the tongue to be thrust 
out a considerable distance. The tip of the tongue is sharp, 
and barbed with several filaments, and more firmly to se- 
cure the prey, a kind of gummy secretion causes those in- 
sects to adhere that would be too small to be impaled. 

It appears to be an erroneous opinion that these birds 
injure trees. Their only object in pecking away the wood 
and bark is to get at the insects, which they know are hid- 
den within. Now, insects seldom or never bore into healthy 
wood, but a decayed branch or stump is always full of 
them; so the winged entomologist, when he perceives a 
decayed branch, or finds an unsound spot in the trunk, 
immediately sets to work industriously, and is rewarded 
by finding plenty of insects, which he draws out and de- 
molishes. 

Although the Woodpecker does not scoop away sound 
trees, yet it is because it has no motive for doing so — not 
that the power is wanting. Wilson had an Ivory-billed 
Woodpecker in his possession, which pecked away lath 
and plaster in its efforts to escape, and utterly ruined a 
mahogany table to which it was fastened. 

The Green Woodpecker is by far the most common, 
and may be often seen in woods, tapping the trees with 
wonderful rapidity. It generally runs up the trunk of the 
tree in a spiral direction, occasionally striking off large 
pieces of dry bark. When it descends, it still keeps its 
head uppermost. 

I have often seen the Green Woodpecker busily employed 
among the trees. I have never seen it on the ground, and 
once only on the smaller branches of the trees. 



170 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Wryneck is tolerably common in the southern 
counties of England, but is scarcely ever seen in the north 
and west. It principally feeds on ants, which it picks up 
with great rapidity by means of its long tongue, covered 
with a glutinous secretion like that of the Woodpecker. 
The rapidity with which the ants are taken is so great that 
" an ant's egg, which is of a light color and more conspicu- 
ous than the tongue, has somewhat the appearance of mov- 
ing to the mouth by attraction, as a needle does to the 
magnet." The term Wryneck is given it from its habit of 
rapidly twisting its head and neck, and hissing like a ser- 
pent, if disturbed upon its eggs. The young also hiss if 
they are molested. Its eggs are laid on the bare wood in 
the holes of trees. Like most eggs that are laid in holes ; 
they are of a pure white. The length of the bird is 7 
inches. 

The Cuckoo, spring's harbinger, has, in all ages, obtained 
for itself a name at once pleasing and disreputable ; pleas- 
ing, because its well-known notes are a sign that the cold 
winter is gone, and disreputable, because it usurps the 
nests of other birds, of which the Hedge Sparrow is the 
usual victim. In its nest the Cuckoo deposits one of its 
own eggs, which are remarkably small in proportion to 
the size of the bird. The unsuspecting Hedge Sparrow 
hatches the intruder together with her own young. The 
Cuckoo rapidly increases in size, and monopolizes no small 
portion of the entire nest, besides taking the lion's share 
of the provisions. The mother, however, never seems to 
see the difference, but feeds and tends the interloper with 
quite as much care as her own young. 

The young Cuckoo ejects the rightful occupants of the 
nest, by managing to get the egg or young bird upon its 
back, clambering up to the edge of the nest, and then 
throwing it over by a sharp jerk. 

At some times of the year, Cuckoos are comparatively 
tame. I have repeatedly decoyed them by imitating their 



POUTER. 171 

cry, until they came near enough for me to see the move- 
ments of the beak. 

The Cuckoo feeds principally upon the hairy caterpil- 
lars, especially those of the tiger-moth, the hairs of which 
form a kind of lining to its stomach. These hairs are 
placed so regularly that it was imagined for sometime that 
they were a growth from the stomach itself. To settle the 
point, the microscope was brought to bear on the subject, 
and by its aid, the hairs were found to be exclusively those 
of the caterpillar. 

The Cuckoo will also feed on other insects. Gilbert 
White saw several Cuckoos engaged in feeding by a large 
pond. They were employed in catching the dragon-flies, 
some of which they took while resting on the water plants, 
and others they caught on the wing. 

The Dove family is supposed to be more widely dis- 
tributed than any other. The Ringdove is the largest of 
the Pigeons. A black ringlet round the neck, edged with 
white, gives it the name of Ringdove. It is very common, 
and its nests are usually found to consist of a few sticks, 
thrown loosely together on a spray of fir or holly. The 
structure of this platform, for nest it can hardly be called, 
is so loose, that the white eggs can generally be seen from 
below through the interstices of the nest. 

The following group comprises the most conspicuous 
varieties of the Domestic Pigeon. All these birds, except 
the Carrier, the Pouter and Tumbler, are very similar in 
their habits and need no description. 

The Tumbler is a very little pigeon, and derives its name 
from its singular habit of falling backwards when on the 
wing. Pigeon fanciers assert that a flight of twelve Tum- 
blers may be covered with a handkerchief. 

The Pouter is a large pigeon. It stands particularly 
erect, and seems exceedingly vain of the swollen crop 
which gives it the name of Pouter. The bird is enabled 
to inflate its crop with air, until the head is almost hidden 



172 NATURAL HISTORY. 

behind it. This inflation sometimes causes the bird to 
lose its balance and fall down chimneys, on which it is 
fond of standing. 

The Carrier Pigeon is the bird that was employed to 
take messages before the invention of the telegraph ren- 
dered even the speed of the wind too slow for the present 
day. The most valuable Carriers were trained to carry to 
and from their residence. A letter was written on a small 
piece of paper, and fastened under the wing of the Pigeon, 
or to its feet. The feet were then bathed in vinegar to 
keep them cool, lest the bird should stop on the way to 
bathe. When the Pigeon was set free, it rose high in the 
air, made one or two circular .flights, and then darted off 
like an arrow in the proper direction. One of these birds 
has been known to fly nearly 150 miles in one hour. 

The Peacock. This magnificent bird has been domes- 
ticated in several countries. Some suppose that it was 
first brought from India by Alexander, and by him intro- 
duced into Europe. The gorgeous plumes that adorn the 
Peacock do not compose the tail, as many suppose, but 
are only the tail coverts. The tail feathers themselves are 
short and rigid, and serve to keep the train spread, as may 
be seen when the bird walks about in all the majesty of 
his plumage. 

Although Pea-fowl seek their food on the ground, they 
invariably roost on some elevated situation, such as a 
high branch, or the roof of a barn or haystack. When the 
bird is perched on the roof, its train lies along the thatch, 
and is quite invisible in the dark. 

In the times of chivalry, a roasted Peacock, clothed in 
its plumage, and with its train displayed, formed one of 
the chief ornaments of the regal board. The nest of this 
bird is made of sticks and leaves rudely thrown together, 
and contains from twelve to fifteen eggs. The young do 
not attain their full plumage until the third year, and only 
the males possess the vivid tints and lengthened train, the 




Peacock. 



(173) 



174 NATURAL HISTORY. 

female being a comparatively ordinary bird. A white 
variety of the Peacock is not uncommon. In this case, 
the eyes of the train feathers are slightly marked with a 
kind of neutral tint. The voice of the Peacock is as un- 
pleasant and unmusical as its external appearance is at- 
tractive. 

The Common Pheasant was originally brought from 
Georgia. It is a hardy bird, and bears the cold months 
very well. Although it can be tamed, and will come to 
be fed with the poultry, yet an innate timidity prevents 
it from being thoroughly domesticated. Young Pheasants 
that have been hatched under a hen, scamper off in terror 
if an unexpected intruder makes his appearance among 
them, although the remainder of the poultry remain per- 
fectly unconcerned. 

This bird loves to perch at night on trees, especially on 
the spreading branches of the larch. 

A white variety of the Pheasant sometimes occurs, but 
seems never to be propagated. The nest of the bird is 
made on the ground, and contains about fifteen eggs. 

The Domestic Fowls are too well known to need much 
description. There are many varieties, the most conspic- 
uous of which are the Cochin-China, Crested and Bantam. 
The Game Fowl was formerly in great request for the cruel 
sport of cock-fighting. The Java Fowl, of which the 
enormous Cochin-China bird is a variety, is supposed to 
be the origin of the barn-door fowl. The cock has been 
long celebrated for his warlike propensities, and his habit 
of greeting the approach of morn by his u shrill clarion." 

The Bantam is a very little bird, indeed, but exceedingly 
courageous, and does not hesitate to attack a Turkey or 
such large bird with most amusing pompousness of man- 
ner. Some Bantams have their legs thickly feathered 
down to the very toes. The hackles, or long neck-feathers 
of this and the preceding bird, are much used by anglers 
for making artificial flies. 




Argus Pheasant Displaying. 



(175) 



176 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The celebrated Jungle Fowl of India belongs to this race, 
and is by many supposed to be the origin of our domestic 
game fowl. The Chinese, who are greatly addicted to the 
sport of cock-fighting, prefer this bird for their cruel 
amusement. 

The Dorking Fowl is a large and delicate species. The 
chief peculiarity in this bird is the double hind toe, so 
that it has five toes instead of four. 

The Turkey is an inhabitant of America, and appears 
to have been imported into Europe about the year 1600. 
Its habits, when wild in its native woods, are rather inter- 
esting. It is partly migratory in its habits, moving from 
the parts about Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana towards the 
Ohio and Mississippi. The march is usually performed 
on foot in large flocks, the birds seldom using their wings 
except when attacked, or in order to cross a river. The 
powerful birds can easily cross a river of a mile in breadth, 
but the weaker frequently fall into the water, and then 
paddle to shore with some rapidity. This migration is 
performed about the end of October. 

The Partridge is known as one of the birds included 
in the designation of " game." It lays about twenty eggs 
in a rude nest placed on the ground, and displays great 
attachment to them, and no small ingenuity in decoying 
an intruder away. It is said that a gentleman who was 
overlooking his plowman saw a Partridge run from her 
nest, almost crushed by the horses' hoofs. Being certain 
that the next furrow must bury the eggs and nest, he 
watched for the return of the plow, when to his great as- 
tonishment the nest, previously containing twenty-five 
eggs, was vacant. After a search, he found the bird sitting 
upon the eggs under a hedge, nearly forty yards from the 
nest, to which place she and her mate had removed the 
whole number in less than twenty minutes. In some 
parts of the country the Partridge is very plentiful — one 
sportsman having shot in two days 168 brace. 




BLACK GROUSE. 177 

The length of the bird is about twelve inches ; the wing 
is short and rounded, causing the peculiar whirring sound 
when in motion. 

The Quail (Bob White) is a quite common little bird. 
Countless flocks of them are spread over the Southern and 
Middle States, and many are taken and sent to the New 
York markets. 

Temmick states that hundreds of thousands arrive in 
Naples and Providence, and are so fatigued that for seve- 
ral days they suffer themselves to be taken by hand. We 
are here reminded of the flight of Quails with which the 
Israelites were fed, the sacred narrative even preserving 
the nocturnal flight of these birds. "And it came to pass, 
that at even the Quails came up and covered the camp." 
Probably the instinct to fly by night is implanted in them 
for the purpose of avoiding the birds of prey that would 
attack them by day. The female lays from seven to 
twelve eggs in a rude nest on the ground. 

The length of the bird is seven inches. 

The Black Grouse is still found on the moors of Scot- 
land and some parts of England, and, together with the 
red grouse, tempts sportsmen to spend their leisure months 
on the moors. 

The legs and feet of the Ptarmigans are thickly covered 
with hair-like feathers, reaching as far as the claws. Their 
plumage bears a singular analogy to the fur of the ermine 
and some other quadrupeds, as it changes in winter from 
a rich tortoise-shell color to a pure white. It inhabits the 
northern parts of Europe and America, and is also found 
in the north of Scotland, principally among the moun- 
tains. The color of the bird is so similar to that of the 
mossy and lichen-covered rocks among which it dwells 
that a whole covey easily eludes an unpracticed eye. 

Great numbers of them are annually imported from the 
north of Europe, especially from Norway and Sweden, to 
the London market. One poulterer has purchased 15,000 

12 



178 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of these birds, and 24,000 have been exported in one ship 
from one place. 

Like that of the Grouse, the Ptarmigan's nest is a loosely- 
constructed heap of twigs and grass, and contains usually 
twelve eggs. 

The Mound-making Megapode inhabits the dense 
thickets bordering on the sea-shore, and is never found 
far inland. Like the Brush Turkey, it deposits many eggs 
in one mound, but instead of placing them at intervals in 
the mound, the bird makes deep holes, from five to six 
feet, at the bottom of which the eggs are deposited. The 
natives obtain the eggs by scratching up the earth with 
their fingers until they have traced the hole to the bot- 
tom; a very laborious task, as the holes seldom run 
straight, and often turn off at right-angles to avoid stone 
or root. The mounds are enormously large. Mr. Gilbert 
was told by the residents that they were the tombs of the 
aborigines, nor was it until after some time that their real 
nature was made know 7 n. The height of one mound was 
fifteen feet, and its greatest circumference at the base sixty 
feet. 

The Ostrich is the largest bird as yet known to exist, 
its height being from six to eight feet. It is an inhabitant 
of Africa, and from thence the elegant plumes are brought. 
These plumes are mostly obtained from the wings of the 
bird, and not from the tail, as is generally imagined. 

An immense number of eggs are laid by the Ostriches 
in one spot, several birds belonging to each nest. The 
eggs are very large and strong, and are in general use by 
the Bosjesmans for holding water. By means of these 
eggs, which they bury at intervals in the sand, after filling 
them with water, they are enabled to make inroads across 
the desert and retreat with security, as none can follow 
them for want of water. Each egg holds rather more than 
five pints. An excellent omelet is made by the natives by 
burying the fresh egg in hot ashes, and stirring round the 




Ostrich. 



(179) 



180 NATURAL HISl n ORY. 

contents with a stick through a hole in the upper end 
until thoroughly cooked. 

The principal strength of the Ostrich tribe lies in the 
legs. These limbs are so powerful that a swift horse has 
great difficulty in overtaking the bird. As the Ostrich 
mostly runs in large curves, the hunters cut across and 
intercept the bird, which would in all probability escape 
if followed in its exact course. 

The Ostrich is easily tamed. They frequently astonish 
the visitor at the zoological gardens by suddenly snatch- 
ing out of his hand a bun or a cake, their long necks en- 
abling them to reach a surprising distance. Many have 
doubtless seen the tame Ostriches at the Hippodrome, 
who ran races bearing riders on their backs, and seeming 
to enjoy the sport as much as any of the spectators. 

The food of the Ostrich is vegetable, and it swallows 
many stones, etc., to assist it in grinding its food. When 
in confinement it picks up anything— glass, nails, etc. — 
from the effects of which it sometimes dies. I have as- 
sisted at the dissection of an Ostrich, and have seen an 
astonishing amount of pebbles and other hard materials 
taken from its stomach, among which were a tolerably 
large piece of deal, and a portion of a brickbat. 

The Rhea, or American Ostrich, is abundant on the 
banks of the river La Plata, and is chased by the Gauchos, 
who pursue it on horseback, and kill it by throwing the 
celebrated " bolos." These curious weapons are made of 
a long leathern thong, having a heavy stone or leaden ball 
attached to each end. The Gaucho can throw it so as 
either to stun his prey with a blow from the ball, or 
strangle it by causing the thong to twist round its neck. 

It is known that the Rhea can swim well, and it has been 
seen to cross rivers several hundred feet in width, a power 
which the Ostrich and the Cassowary are not ascertained 
to possess. There are two species of this bird — one, the 
Darwin's Rhea, has been but lately introduced to science. 



EMEU. 181 

The Cassowary is a native of the eastern parts of Asia. 
Like the Ostrich, it cannot fly, but runs with great swift- 
ness, and if attacked by dogs kicks with extreme force and 
rapidity. The feathers of this bird are remarkable for 
being composed of two long, thread-like feathers sprout- 
ing from the same root. The wing feathers are round, 
black and strong, and resemble the quills of the Porcupine. 
At the end of the last joint of the wing is a sort of claw or 
spur. The crest upon its head is composed of a cellular 
bony substance. 

The food of the bird consists of vegetable substances, 
and it will frequently swallow a tolerably large apple en- 
tire, trusting to the pebbles, etc., in its stomach to bruise it. 

The Emeu is a native of New Holland, and nearly equals 
the Ostrich in bulk, its height being between five and six 
feet. Its feathers lie loosely on the body, and its wings 
are small and hardly to be distinguished. The skin of the 
Emeu furnishes a bright and clear oil, on which account 
it is eagerly sought after. 

In its manners the Emeu bears a close resemblance to 

the Ostrich Its food appears to be^wholly vegetable, 

consisting chiefly of fruits, roots and herbage, and it is 
consequently, notwithstanding its great strength, perfectly 
inoffensive. The length of its legs and the muscularity of 
its thighs enable it to run with great swiftness ; and as it 
is exceedingly shy, it is not easily overtaken or brought 
within gun-shot. Dogs will seldom attack it, both on ac- 
count of some peculiar odor in its flesh which they dislike, 
and because the injuries inflicted upon them by striking 
out with its feet are frequently very severe. 

Its flesh has been compared to coarse beef, which it re- 
sembles both in appearance and taste. The hind-quarters 
are the only part fit for culinary use. 

The voice of the Emeu is a kind of low booming sound. 
The eggs are six or seven in number, of a dark green color, 
and are much esteemed by the natives as food. When the 



182 NATURAL HISTORY. 

natives take an Emeu they break its wings, a curious cus- 
tom of no perceptible utility. 

The Apteryx. This extraordinary bird, whose name is 
derived from the apparent absence of wings, those mem- 
bers being merely rudimentary, inhabits the islands of 
New Zealand. It conceals itself among the densest fern, 
and when hunted by dogs it hastens to seek a refuge 
among rocks and in the chambers which it excavates in 
the earth. In these chambers its nest is made and the 
eggs laid. The natives hunt it with great eagerness, as the 
skins are used for the dresses of chiefs, who are so tena- 
cious of them that they can hardly be persuaded to part 
with a single skin. The feathers are employed to make 
artificial flies. When attacked it defends itself by rapid 
and vigorous strokes with its powerful feet. 

For many years naturalists considered it an extinct 
species. The question has been set at rest by the arrival 
in London of several skins and one living specimen, now 
in the Zoological Gardens. This bird has a singular habit 
of resting with the top of its bill placed on the ground. 
The nostils of the Apteryx are placed almost at the very 
extremity of the bill. The aborigines of New Zealand 
give it the name of Kiwi Kiwi. The food of the bird 
consists of snails, insects and worms, which latter creatures 
it obtains by striking the ground with its feet, and seizing 
them on their appearance at the surface. 

The Dodo. This singular bird, which is supposed to be 
extinct, was discovered in the Mauritius by the earlier voy- 
agers. For many years their accounts of the Dodars were 
supposed to be mere flights of fancy. Lately, however, 
the discovery of several relics of this bird in various coun- 
tries has set the question of its existence at rest, but not 
the question of the proper position of the bird. Some 
think it belongs to the Pigeons and some to the Ostriches. 

It is still within the range of possibility that this bird 
may again be discovered, as at present but little of Mada- 



GREAT BUSTARD. 



183 



gascar has been searched, and in that island, if anywhere, 
it will be found. 

The Great Bustard is now scarcely ever seen in Eng- 
land, although formerly it was tolerably common. It 
runs with great swiftness, and will never rise on the wing 
until forced, so that instances have been known of Bus- 




The Dodo. 

tards being captured by greyhounds. It is exceedingly 
wary, and can hardly be approached within gun-shot, ex- 
cept by adopting some disguise, as a laborer with the gun 
in his wheelbarrow, or by driving a cart or a carriage by 
the spot where it is feeding. 

The male Bustard possesses a membranous pouch on 
the fore part of the neck capable of holding six pints of 
water. There is an opening to this pouch under the 
tongue, and its use is possibly, like that of the pelican, to 



184 NATURAL HISTORY. 

carry water for the use of the young ; but this is not ascer- 
tained. Its length is more than three feet. Its nest is a 
loose heap of straw on the ground, and contains two pale- 
brown eggs, rather larger than those of the turkey. 

The Plovers are known by their long legs, short toes 
and long, powerful wings. Many are inhabitants of 
America, of which the Upland or Field and Golden 
Plover are the most common. 

The Golden Plover is very common in most parts of the 
United States, and is well known from its plaintive cry 
and the stratagems it employs to decoy intruders away 
from its nest, or rather eggs, for nest it has none. Fre- 
quently, however, the attempts of the bird only draw the 
attention of the passer-by to the evident vicinity of the 
eggs. These eggs are dark brown, blotched with black, 
and are hardly to be distinguished from the soil where 
they are laid. If an intruder approach them the bird 
glides before him, and flutters along, drooping her wings, 
as if wounded, invariably endeavoring to lead him away 
from her nest. When it has succeeded in decoying away 
the intruder it suddenly mounts in the air, uttering its cry 
of pee-weet, leaving the pursuer to gaze with astonishment 
at the escaping bird. The eggs are sold under the title of 
" plovers' eggs," and are considered great delicacies. When 
flying, the black and white plumage makes it very con- 
spicuous. On the head of the bird is a kind of a crest. 

The Common Crane is now but rarely seen, although 
it formerly was common. It flies at so great a height 
that although its hoarse cry is audible, the bird itself is far 
out of reach of sight. It generally feeds on snails, frogs 
and worms, but is not by any means averse to newly-sown 
grain. The nest is made among reeds and rushes, and 
contains two eggs. It is nearly four feet in length. 

The Heron is a bird renowned in the noble science of 
falconry. 

It generally breeds in company, like the Rooks ; indeed, 



HERON. 



185 



these two birds frequently inhabit contiguous trees, but 
never interfere with each other. In the dawn of the 




Heron (in Breeding Plumage). 



early morning, or while the moon casts an uncertain light, 
the Heron may be seen standing in the shallow water, 



186 NATURAL HISTORY. 

stiff and motionless, and by the faint light may be mis- 
taken for a stump of a tree. But his eye is keenly di- 
rected on the water, and no sooner does a fish approach 
than a dart of his unerring bill secures it, and the Heron 
soars exultingly to his nest, bearing his prey with him. 
The fixed patience that the Heron displays has caused 
it to be chosen as the emblem of solitude. 

The plumes of the Heron were formerly considered as 
ornaments, only to be worn by the noble. 

It has been lately ascertained that the Heron can swim 
in deep water, and does so when it sees any prey that can- 
not be reached by wading, such as a nice nestful of young 
moor-hens, or a water-rat engaged at his dinner. 

The nest of the Heron is a flat mass of sticks, laid on the 
highest branches of a tree, and contains five eggs. The 
length of the bird is about three feet. An old name of this 
bird was the Heme, or Hernshaw, from which was derived 
the saying, " He does not know a Hawk from a Hern- 
shaw." The last word has been corrupted into " hand- 
saw," which renders the proverb unmeaning. 

The beautiful Bittern has been almost banished from 
England, although it was formerly a common bird. It 
frequents morasses and dense beds of reeds, where it lies 
concealed until evening, when it leaves its rushy bed and 
soars to a vast height, continually uttering its sepulchral 
booming cry. This singular sound is not unlike the bel- 
lowing of a bull, and is most startling in its effect. 

In olden times the Bittern was one of the birds chiefly 
sought after in falconry, as the stout defence it makes 
against its enemies, by darting its sharp and powerful 
beak at them, and beating violently with its feet, renders 
it by no means an easy prey. For this reason, the fal- 
coner's first care on reaching the Bittern, when brought to 
the ground by his falcon, was to secure its head, and by 
fixing its bill deep in the earth, to save his eyes from the 
rapid and well-aimed blows of the wounded bird. The 



188 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



Falcon also was in danger of being transfixed by the sharp 
beak of his victim. 

The plumage of this beautiful bird is a rich reddish- 
yellow-ground, boldly variegated with various black 
marks, which are most conspicuous in the loose, long 
feathers that decorate its neck. In size it is a little less 
than the Heron. It feeds principally on small reptiles, 
field-mice and fish. Its nest is built on some slight eleva- 
tion in a morass, and contains five eggs. 

The White Spoonbill is found in Europe, Asia and 
Africa and frequents Holland, together with the Stork. 
The strange shape of the tip of its beak has gained it the 
name of Spoonbill. It feeds on worms, snails and water- 
plants, searching for the latter by agitating the water with 
its broad beak. 

The nest of the Spoonbill is sometimes placed in trees 
and sometimes amid rushes. It contains three whitish 
eggs, slightly spotted with red. The length of the bird is 
not quite three* feet. 

The Stork is extensively found in Europe, Asia and 
Africa. In Holland Storks are very abundant, and are en- 
couraged by the Dutch to build in their towns. Among 
the ruins of Persepolis they are very common, scarcely 
one pillar being without a Stork's nest at the summit. In 
Holland a kind of false chimney is built by the inhab- 
itants for these birds to make their nests in. When the 
Stork cannot find a building on which to make its nest, 
it chooses the flat, spreading branches of a cedar or pine, 
and there collects a-large mass of sticks and twigs, on which 
it lays from three to five whitish eggs. When disturbed, 
the birds make a great clattering with their bills. 

Its food consists of rats, mice, frogs, etc., and it is for the 
benefits it confers upon man by devouring these vermin 
that it is so carefully protected and encouraged, especially 
in the east, where the inhabitants do not trouble them- 
selves by removing carrion or offal, but leave that office 



AVOCET. 189 

to the Vultures, Hyenas and other scavengers of nature. 
Its height is nearly four feet. 

The Sacred Ibis inhabits Egypt, but does not seem to 
breed there. This is the bird so frequently depicted in 
the hieroglyphics as playing a conspicuous part in relig- 
ious ceremonies. Their mummies are constantly found in 
the tombs, and in one of these mummies Cuvier discovered 
remnants of skin and scales of snakes. It is a migratory 
bird, appearing simultaneously with the rise of the Nile, 
and departing as the inundation subsides. The Sacred 
Ibis is about the size of an ordinary fowl. 

The Curlew is often found in the northern parts of 
England and Scotland, and is spread over the whole of the 
Old World, from South Africa to the polar regions. In 
winter it collects in large flocks on the muddy shores of 
the sea, where its long, curved bill can easily penetrate in 
search of food. It is an exceedingly shy bird, and cannot 
easily be approached within gun-shot. 

Its nest is composed of grass and rushes, collected under 
the shelter of a tuft of heath or grass, and contains four 
eggs. Its length slightly exceeds two feet. 

The common Avocet is spread throughout the warmer 
regions of Europe, and is also found in some parts of 
Africa. It is very common in Holland, and is frequently 
seen on the eastern coast of England, but seldom visits 
Scotland. It frequents marshes and the mouths of rivers, 
where it finds in the mud myriads of the small worms and 
insects on which it feeds, and which it obtains by scoop- 
ing them up from the mud with its curiously-curved bill. 
It is a remarkably good swimmer, but it seldom has re- 
course to that art except when it wades unexpectedly out 
of its depth. 

The eggs of the Avocet are laid on the ground, in a de- 
pression sheltered by a tuft of herbage. Their color is a 
bluish green, spotted with black. The birds when dis- 
turbed at their nests feign lameness, like the Lapwing, in 



190 NATURAL HISTORY. 

order to draw the intruder to a distance. The length of 
the bird is eighteen inches. 

The Woodcock frequents dense thickets during the day, 
but at night it leaves these retreats and visits the swamps 
and flooded meadows, where it finds a sufficiency of worms 
and insects. 

Its nest is a loose mass of grass and leaves, gathered to- 
gether in some sheltered depression. The eggs are four 
in number. 

The Snipe is too well known to need description. In its 
habits it much resembles the Woodcock. Its flight is very 
singular, rendering it a difficult mark. 

The Corncrake, or Landrail, is very common in Eng- 
land. It reaches there early in April, and leaves at the 
end of October, after hatching its eggs. During the early 
part of the summer months its harsh cry may be heard 
in almost every field, but the bird itself is very seldom seen, 
as it threads its way among the long grass with marvellous 
rapidity. Its cry can be so exactly imitated by drawing a 
quill sharply across the teeth of a comb that the bird may 
be decoyed by the sound until quite close to the operator. 
The Corncrake is so averse to rising on the wing that a dog 
is frequently employed to hunt it. The young when taken 
feign death with admirable accuracy, nor do they move 
until they imagine that the intruder is out of the way. 

The nest of the Corncrake is by no means uncommon. 
It is formed of hay, collected and worked into some de- 
pression in the ground, and contains from eight to twelve 
eggs. Its length is about nine inches. 

The Water-hen, or Moor-hen, is very common along 
the reedy banks of rivers and ponds. It is very widely dis- 
tributed, being found in almost all parts of the Old World. 
It swims very gracefully, constantly nodding its head, and 
dives with great skill and rapidity, particularly when 
alarmed, in which case it generally dives under some float- 
ing herbage, and remains there with merely its beak above 




WATER-HEN. 191 

the water until the danger is passed. On account of this 




Flamingo. 



habit, it is almost useless to shoot this bird unless the 
sportsman is accompanied by a dog, for if it is not shot 



192 NATURAL HISTORY. 

dead it instantly dives, and nothing but a dog can discover 
its retreat. It runs on land with considerable activity, con- 
stantly flirting up its tail, so as to show the white feathers 
beneath, and, when alarmed, instantly makes for the 
water. 

The water-hen's nest is built among sedges and reeds, at 
the water-side, and contains from five to eight eggs. When 
the water-hen leaves her nest, she covers the eggs with 
dried grass and reeds, so as completely to conceal them, 
apparently lest the rats should discover them. The young 
when hatched look like round tufts of black down. They 
swim and dive well, following their parent with great ad- 
dress. The pike is their chief enemy, and destroys num- 
bers by darting at them from under the cover of water- 
lilies or other plants. 

The Flamingo is an inhabitant of the warmer parts of 
Europe, and is common in Asia and on the coasts of Africa. 
The singularly-shaped beak of this splendid bird is pe- 
culiarly adapted to its long and flexible neck. When the 
bird wishes to feed, it merely stoops its head into the wa- 
ter; the upper mandible is then lowest, and is well fitted 
to receive the nutritive substances which are entangled in 
a filter placed on the edges of the beak, much resembling 
the analogous apparatus of the whale. 

The Flamingo frequents marshes, lakes, and mouths of 
rivers, bidding defiance to the pestilent exhalations that 
drive man far from their haunts. The color of their plu- 
mage is a deep, brilliant scarlet, except the quill feathers, 
which are black. When a number of these birds stand 
ranged in a line, according to their custom, they present 
the appearance of a small and well-drilled body of soldiers, 
but are far more dangerous to approach than the most 
formidable army, for the miasma of the marshes has a 
more deadly aim than the rifle, and its breath is more cer- 
tainly fatal than the bullet. 

The nest of the Flamingo is a curious conical structure 




Bevick's Swan. Whistling Swan. Mute Swan. 

13 ( 193 ) 



194 NATURAL HISTORY. 

of mud, with a cavity at the summit, in which are placed 
two or three whitish eggs. When the female bird sits on 
the nest, her feet rest on the ground, or hang into the wa- 
ter. Its height is about six feet. 

The Mute or Tame Swan, a well-known ornament in 
lakes and rivers, was introduced from Eastern Europe and 
Asia several hundred years ago. All are familiar with the 
graceful deportment of this bird while sailing on the water. 
Its progress on land is confined to an awkward waddle. 

The female Swan makes its nest of a great mass of dry 
reeds, placed among osiers or rushes near the water, and 
lays six or eight large white eggs. During the time of 
incubation, and while the young are still small, the parent 
birds defend them with great assiduity and courage. 

A Black Swan has been discovered in Australia, the 
whole of whose plumage is a jetty black, with the excep- 
tion of the quill feathers, which are white. It has been 
domesticated, and may be seen in many of the great parks. 

The Mallard or Wild Duck is the origin of our do- 
mestic bird, and is widely spread over the northern parts 
of Europe, Asia, and America. In the winter it migrates 
in countless flocks to the warmer States. Incredible num- 
bers of these birds are taken in a very ingenious trap, 
called a decoy. It is a perfect edifice of poles and nets, 
and is built in the form of a tube, very wide at the mouth, 
and very narrow at the extremity. The ducks are induced 
to enter the " pipe " by the antics of a dog, and by some 
hemp-seed previously strewn on the water. They are then 
driven onwards to the smaller end, where they are caught 
and killed. • 

The Colymbid^e are remarkable for their powers of 
diving. The legs are placed very far behind, and the toes 
are so arranged as to fold up when returning from the 
stroke. 

The foot of the Grebes is not webbed like that of most 
water-birds, but each toe is separated and flattened so as 



PUFFIN. 195 

to serve as a separate paddle. The Grebes dive so instan- 
taneously that it is difficult to shoot them, as they dive at 
the flash, and do not reappear for nearly two hundred 
yards, and then they merely raise their head above water 
for a second, and again disappear. 

All the Grebes feed upon fishes and the various water- 
insects, but their stomachs are almost invariably found to 
contain a mass of their own feathers. This circumstance 
presents a singular analogy to those masses of compacted 
hair which are found in the stomachs of cows. In all 
probability the reason for their presence is the same, that 
the feathers and hairs are accidentally conveyed to the 
stomach after the creature has been making its toilet. 

Of the three species of Divers, the Great Northern 
Diver is the largest. It is generally found on the shores 
of the Orkneys and Shetland. 

This bird justly deserves its name of Diver, as it can 
pursue fish under water with the greatest ease and cer- 
tainty, and can remain under water for a long time. 

The nest of this bird is a tolerably large flattened mass 
of dead herbage, and is placed near the water's edge, in 
some place where the bird imagines that the reeds and 
flags, among which it is laid, will guard it from discovery. 
But, unfortunately, the bird dislikes flying, and prefers 
to walk to and from its nest, thereby leaving a very evi- 
dent track, by which it is often discovered. 

The eggs are usually two in number, although three 
have been found in one nest. 

The Puffin is common at the Needles and on the western 
islands of England. It forms deep burrows in the soil, 
in which one egg is deposited, or usurps the burrow of a 
rabbit. The hole is generally from three to four feet in 
depth, when the Puffin is forced to labor for itself; it 
usually takes a winding course ; and the inhabitant is se- 
cured from surprise by forming two entrances, in order 
that if one entrance is attacked it may escape by the other. 



196 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



The egg is always deposited at the furthest extremity of 
the hole, and is not easy to be obtained, on account of the 
vigorous resistance made by the parent bird. It is an ex- 
cellent diver, plunging fearlessly from a lofty cliff into the 
sea, and speedily returning with its beak full of fish, usu- 
ally sprats, which are secured by their heads, and lie in a 
row along the bill of the Puffin, forming a kind offish fringe. 
Its enormous and sharp-edged bill renders it a formidable 
antagonist to intruders. The length of the bird is thirteen 
inches. 

It is said that the Raven and the Puffin have occasional 
conflicts, the object of dispute being generally the egg or 
young of the Auk, for which the Raven has a great predi- 
lection. The issue of the combat depends principally on 
its position, each bird trying to keep to its own peculiar 
element. If the Puffin can drag the Raven over the rocks 
into the sea, it is speedily victorious, as it drowns its sable 
adversary without much trouble ; but if, on the contrary, 
the Raven can keep to shore, its superior size and strength 
gain the dominion. 

The Cape Penguin is very common at the Cape of Good 
Hope and the Falkland Islands. From the extraordinary 
sound it produces while on shore, it is called the Jackass 
Penguin. Darwin gives the following interesting account 
of this bird : " In diving, its little plumeless wings are 
used as fins, but on the land as front legs. When crawling 
(it may be said on four legs) through the tussocks, or on 
the side of a grassy cliff, it moved so very quickly that it 
might readily have been mistaken for a quadruped. 
When at sea and fishing, it comes to the surface for the 
purpose of breathing with such a spring, and dives again 
so instantaneously, that I defy any one at first sight to be 
sure that it is not a fish leaping for sport." 

These birds feed their young in a singular manner. 
The parent bird gets on a hillock, and apparently delivers 
a speech for a few minutes, at the end of which it lowers 



CAPE PEXGUIN. 



197 



its head and opens its beak. The young one thrusts its 
head into the beak of the mother, and seems to suck its 
substance from the throat of the parent bird. Another 




Pexgttin. 

speech is made, and the same process repeated until the 
young is satisfied. 

This Penguin is very courageous, but utterly destitute 
of the better part of courage — discretion ; for it will boldly 
charge at a man. A few blows from a stick is sufficient 
to lay a dozen birds prostrate. 



198 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Stormy Petrel is, under the name of Mother 
Carey's Chicken, the terror of the sailor, who always con- 
siders the bird as the precursor of a storm. It is the 
smallest of the web-footed birds. Few storms are violent 
enough to keep this curious little bird from wandering 
over the waves in search of the food that the disturbed 
water casts to the surface. Like the Fulmar, the Stormy 
Petrel is so exceedingly oily in texture that the inhabit- 
ants of the Feroe Islands draw a wick through its body 
and use it as a lamp. 

The Wandering Albatross, the largest of the genus, is 
a well-known bird in the southern seas, following ships 
for many miles in hopes of obtaining the refuse thrown 
overboard. So voracious is the Albatross that it will swal- 
low a five-pound fish entire. Its flight is peculiarly ma- 
jestic. Its extreme length of wing prevents it from rising 
at once from the ground, but when once launched into 
the air, it seems to float and direct its course without 
effort. The expanse of wing in the Wandering Albatross 
is nearly fourteen feet. 

The voracity of the Albatross renders it an easy prey. 
A hook is baited with a piece of blubber, fastened firmly 
to a string, and suffered to tow astern. The bird sweeps 
down to seize its prey, and is arrested by the hook, by 
means of which it is drawn into the ship. It seems rather 
remarkable that a bird that lives in or over the sea during 
its whole life should prove a landsman when taken on 
board. Yet, when caught and placed on deck, it begins to 
stagger about, and soon becomes as thoroughly sea-sick as 
the most inexperienced sailor. 

The Black-backed Gull is a common bird on the 
coasts, During the winter it seeks the warmer coasts of 
southern Europe. It breeds in great numbers on the 
shores of the Bristol Channel, the Orkneys, and other 
coasts of Great Britain. Its nest is composed of grass, 
rushes, and other materials, and contains three or four 



TERNS. 



199 



eggs. Neither the gulls nor the terns dive, but snatch up 
their prey when at or near the surface. 

The Terns, or Sea-Swallows, are possessed of great 







European Pelican. 



power and endurance of flight, their long forked tails and 
pointed wings indicating strength and swiftness. 



200 NATURAL HISTORY. 

They are found in plenty along the southern shores of 
Europe, in many parts of Asia and Africa, and are fre- 
quently seen on the southern shores of England, and have 
been found in North America. It preys on fish, which it 
snatches from the surface with unerring aim, as it skims 
over the waves with astonishing velocity. 

Its nest is made on the sand above high- water mark, 
and contains two or three eggs, on which the female usu- 
ally sits by night. Its length is about fourteen inches. 

The Noddy, so frequently celebrated by travellers who 
have passed the equator, is a species of Tern. 

The Cormorant is found in abundance, being widely 
spread over many parts of the world. It is exceedingly 
voracious, and devours a great amount of fish. It is an 
excellent diver, and chases the fish actually under the 
water, seldom if ever returning without having secured its 
prey. Like the Otter, when engaged in chase, it occasion- 
ally rises to take breath, and then resumes the pursuit 
with renewed vigor. 

The Cormorant has the power of perching on trees, an 
accomplishment one should hardly suspect a web-footed 
bird of possessing. 

It is easily tamed, and its fishing propensities can be 
turned to good account. The Chinese employ a kind of 
Cormorant for that purpose, having previously placed a 
ring round the bird's neck, to prevent it from swallowing 
the fish. The eggs of this bird are usually laid on the 
rock, but sometimes in the branches of trees. A thick 
coat of chalk envelopes the eggs, and can be easily scraped 
off with a knife. Its length is about three feet. 

The White Pelican inhabits Africa, India and great 
part of the southeastern portions of Europe. It is a very 
conspicuous bird, its singular membranous pouch offering 
a distinction perfectly unmistakable. The pouch, when 
distended, holds two gallons of water, but the bird has the 
power of contracting it so that it is scarcely to be discerned. 



WHITE PELICAN. 201 

The pouch also serves as a net in which to scoop up the 
fish on which the Pelican feeds. Another most important 
use of the pouch is to convey food to the young. The 
parent Pelican presses the pouch against its breast, in 
order to enable the young to obtain the fish, which action, 
in all probability, gave rise to the fable of the Pelican 
feeding its young with its own blood. The red tip of the 
bill probably aided the deception. 

Although a web-footed bird, the Pelican, like the Cor- 
morant, can perch on trees, although it prefers sitting on 
rocks. The color of this bird is a pure white, with a very 
slight tinge of rose-color, and the pouch is yellow. Its 
length is nearly six feet. 



REPTILES. 

We now arrive at the singular Class of Reptiles. The 
animals of this class vary exceedingly in their forms, sizes 
and habits, but the peculiar formation of the circulatory 
system, together with many other anatomical distinctions, 
plainly mark them out as a distinct class. 

The Lizards are usually active, bright-eyed little creat- 
ures, delighting to bask in the sun, near some safe re- 
treat, to which they dart with astonishing celerity upon 
the slightest alarm. The Sand Lizard is considerably 
larger than the Common Lizard, as it sometimes measures 
a foot in length. It frequents sandy heaths, and in the 
sand its eggs are deposited — fifteen in number. The eggs 
are hatched by the heat of the sun, and the young imme- 
diately lead an independent life. During the winter this 
as well as the Common Lizard hybernates in a burrow usu- 
ally made under the roots of a tree, nor does it again make 
its appearance until the spring. 

It is only six inches in length. It is more active than 
the Sand Lizard, disappearing like magic on being alarmed. 
When seized, its tail frequently snaps off like glass. Both 
feed on insects. 

The Blind-worm is not a snake, as generally supposed, 
►but a legless lizard of the Skink family. It is perfectly 
harmless; its small mouth and very minute teeth preclud- 
ing all attempts to injure, even if it had the will. When 
alarmed, it snaps asunder at the slightest blow, like the 
tail of the Common Lizard, and from that peculiarity has 
derived its name " fragilis." It feeds almost entirely on 
small slugs, its jaws not being capable of admitting any 
(202) 



CHAMELEON. 203 

larger prey. It is very common, and may be seen bask- 
ing in the sun in hedgerows or under old walls. Its eyes 
are very small, but brilliant. 

The Iguana family is a very large one, containing 150 
species. The Common Iguana is a native of Brazil, Cay- 
enne, Jamaica, etc. In spite of its repulsive appearance, it 
is with many people a favorite article of food, and is said 
somewhat to resemble chicken. It is fierce when attacked, 
and snaps at its enemies in a most determined manner, 
often scaring away an intruder by the ferocity of its aspect. 
It is generally taken by throwing a noose over its head, and 
dragging it from the branches by main force. It is then 
immediately killed, as its sharp notched teeth can inflict a 
disagreeable wound. Sometimes it is hunted with dogs 
trained to the sport. It attains a considerable size, fre- 
quently reaching the length of six feet. It feeds usually 
on vegetable substances, such as leaves, fruit and fungi ; 
but Iguanas have been seen in the Island of Isabella that 
feed on eggs, insects and even the intestines of fowls. 

The terrible name of Flying Dragon belongs to a 
harmless little lizard, which lives on trees and feeds on 
insects. The peculiar structure of its body bears a singu- 
lar resemblance to that of the Flying Squirrel. The first 
six false ribs are greatly elongated, and support a wing- 
like expansion of skin, which when stretched serves to 
bear them up as they skim through the air from one tree 
to another. While running about on the branches, the 
so-called wings are folded to the side, but when it wishes 
to throw itself from the tree, the ribs are raised, and the 
wings expanded. It is common in Java, India and 
Borneo. 

The Chameleon is plentifully found in northern Africa, 
the south of Spain and Sicily. It lives on trees, but ex- 
hibits none of the activity usually found in arboreal rep- 
tiles. On the contrary, its movements are absurdly grave 
and solemn. The whole activity of the animal seems to 



204 NATURAL HISTORY. 

be centered in its tongue, by means of which organ it se- 
cures flies and other insects with such marvellous rapidity 
that the ancients may be well pardoned for their assertion 
that the air formed the only food of the Chameleon. 
Highly exaggerated descriptions have been given of the 
changes of color in this animal. The changes are by no 
means so complete, nor are the colors so bright, as gene- 
rally supposed. 

The power of the Chameleon to move its eyes in differ- 
ent directions at the same time gives it a most singular 
aspect. Its enormously long tongue can be withdrawn 
into the mouth when not in use ; but when the creature 
sees a fly within reach, the tongue is instantly darted 
forth, and by means of a gummy secretion at the tip se- 
cures the fly The whole movement is so quick as almost 
to elude the eye. 

The peculiar gliding movements of the Snakes render 
them excellent types of the reptiles ; a word derived from 
the Latin repo, I creep. The extraordinary flexibility of 
their bodies is caused by the structure of their vertebrse, 
each one of which fits into one behind it by a ball-and- 
socket joint, thus allowing freedom of motion in every 
direction. 

The Rattlesnake is a native of America. Its name is 
derived from the loose bony structure at the extremity of 
its tail, called the rattle, and which by the sound of its 
movements gives timely intimation of the vicinity of this 
terrible reptile. Fortunately, its disposition is exceedingly 
sluggish, and it invariably sounds its rattle when irritated 
or disturbed. Its bite is inevitably mortal, and death 
always ensues within a few hours after the wound has 
been inflicted. 

The deadly weapons with which the venomous serpents 
are armed are two long curved fangs belonging to the 
upper jaw, and moving on a hinge, by which they lie flat 
in the mouth when not wanted. An aperture exists in 



& * 






M 



ft&HIE^i 



Wi 






Iff! 




206 



NATURAL HISTORY, 



the point of the fang, by which a poisonous fluid, secreted 
in a gland at the base of the tooth, is poured into the 
wound, and, mixing with the blood, rapidly carries its 
deadly influence throughout the entire system. A physi- 
cian exhibiting a caged rattlesnake to his friends, ap- 
proached his hand too near the irritated reptile, who in- 
flicted a wound, and, although every precaution was 
taken, the bite proved fatal in a few hours. 

The inhabitants of those countries where the Rattle- 
snake lives are not very much afraid of it, as they know 
that it will be sure to run away directly it hears the ap- 
proach of human footsteps. It appears that when a man 
is cutting wood or otherwise engaged in a forest, and hears 
a Rattlesnake near him, he has no fear, as long as he can 
keep its rattle going, but directly the sound ceases, the 
man is rather in dread, not knowing where the animal 
may turn up next; so he keeps the snake in a constant 
state of alarm by throwing bits of wood or sticks at the 
place where the reptile is lying, and on again hearing the 
sound of the rattle he continues his work in confidence 
until the snake is silent, when some more missiles are 
sent in the same direction. 

Even when these snakes are ready for a spring they can 
be avoided by smartly clapping the hands together, or 
striking the ground with a stick. The snake has the whole 
powers of its mind bent upon its fatal stroke, and, on 
hearing such an unexpected sound, it is startled, like a 
man suddenly w T aked from sleep, and falls down in its 
coil again, giving time for its intended victim to escape 
before it has made up its mind to another assault. Its 
length seldom exceeds seven feet. 

The Puff Adder is an inhabitant of Southern Africa. 
It is a short, thick, flattish snake, of a most sinister and 
malignant aspect, whose bite will sometimes kill in an 
hour. 

It is the more dangerous, because it has a way of flat- 



208 NATURAL HISTORY. 

tening itself upon the ground, so that, when it is lying thus 
concealed upon the sand, an incautious pedestrian is very 
likely to tread upon it. 

The Common Viper, or Adder, is the only venomous 
reptile inhabiting England, nor is its bite nearly so dan- 
gerous in its consequences as has been reported/ Seldom 
has the Viper proved mortal ; and in all probability, if 
proper precaution be taken, no case would have been 
fatal. Viper-catchers employ olive oil as a remedy against 
the bite, and from all accounts it appears to be a certain 
preservative against all evil effects. The oil should be 
heated to produce its full efficacy. 

It is asserted that, when danger threatens, the female 
Viper opens her mouth and permits her brood to hide 
themselves, but it is by no means an ascertained fact. 

Frogs, lizards, mice and other small animals form the 
food of this reptile. 

The enormous Boa-constrictor inhabits tropical- Amer- 
ica. It is not venomous, but it is not the less dangerous, 
as the tremendous power of its muscles enables it to crush 
its prey in the coils of its huge body. In order to procure 
its food it lies in wait by the side of some river or pool, 
where animals of all kinds are likely to come to quench 
their thirst, It patiently waits until some animal draws 
within reach, when with one spring the Boa fixes its teeth 
in the creature's head, coils its body round its victim, and 
crushes it to death. After the unfortunate animal has 
been reduced almost to a shapeless mass by the pressure 
of the snake, its destroyer makes preparations for swallow- 
ing it entire, a task which it accomplishes, although the 
slaughtered animal is usually very much larger than the 
dimensions of the serpent. At last the snake succeeds in 
swallowing its prey, and then lies torpid for nearly a 
month, until its enormous meal is digested, when it again 
sallies forth in search of another. 

Even the buffalo has been known to fall a victim to this 




TORTOISE. 209 

fearful serpent, whose length frequently exceeds twenty- 
five feet. 

The Cobra de Capello is a native of India. 

The serpent-charmers invariably use this formidable rep- 
tile for their performances. The exhibitors possess several 
Cobras shut up in baskets, and when commencing their 
performances the lid of the basket is opened and the snake 
creeps out. Its course is arrested by the sound of the rude 
fife that the charmer always carries, and it immediately 
expands its beautiful though threatening hood, erects its 
neck and commences a series of undulating movements, 
which are continued until the sound of the fife ceases, 
when the snake instantly drops and is replaced in its basket 
by its master. The charmers appear to be able to discover 
snakes and to induce them to leave their retreats. Indeed 
it is rather a singular fact that those travellers who most 
strongly insist that the snakes thus caught are tame and 
divested of their fangs appear to forget that even in that 
case the creatures must have been previously caught in 
order to deprive them of their weapons. The length of 
this snake is about five or six feet. 

The Common Ringed or Grass Snake is a harmless in- 
habitant of this country, and may be frequently seen or 
heard gliding along the hedge-banks in search of food. It 
is easily tamed, and soon learns to know its master. It 
lives principally on frogs, mice, young birds, newts, etc. 
It is an excellent swimmer, and from the peculiar con- 
struction of its lungs can remain under water for some time. 
Like all other serpents, the Ringed Snake sheds its skin 
several times during the year. The entire skin comes off, 
even the covering of the eyes. A rent opens in the neck, 
and the snake, by entangling itself in the thick grass or 
bushes, actually creeps out of its skin, turning it inside 
out in the effort. 

The Tortoise. The whole of this order is characterized 
by the complete suit of bony armor with which the ani- 

14 



210 NATURAL HISTORY. 

mals are protected. The so-called "shell " is in fact a de- 
velopment of so many bones, and not a mere horny ap- 
pendage like the coverings of the Armadillo and Manis. 
The upper shield is called the " carapace," and is united 
to the under shield or " plastron " by certain bones, leav- 
ing orifices for the protrusion of the head and limbs. 
Most species are able to withdraw their head and limbs 
completely within the shell, and in some few the orifices 
are closed by a kind of hinge-joint. The tortoise-shell of 
commerce is a series of horny plates that cover the ex- 
terior of the shield, and is in great request on account of 
the beautiful wavy markings that are so familiar to our 
eyes. 

The Tortoises and Turtles possess no teeth, but the sides 
of their jaws are very hard and sharp, enabling them to 
crop vegetable substances or to inflict a severe bite. 

The family is divided into Land Tortoise, Marsh Tor- 
toise, River Tortoise and Marine Tortoise or Turtles. 

The Land Tortoise is found in abundance in the south 
of Europe and in America. It is often kept in captivity 
in this country, and is very long-lived, individuals being 
known to have exceeded 200 years. Its movements are 
very slow, but it can excavate a burrow with unexpected 
rapidity. Secure in an impenetrable covering, it bids defi- 
ance to any ordinary enemy except man and the Boa-con- 
strictor. Man takes him home and roasts him, and the 
Boa-constrictor swallows him whole, shell and all, and con- 
sumes him slowly in the interior. 

I had a Land Tortoise for a few months, part of whose 
life is described in the following passage : 

The Tortoise was a very small one, and was tolerably 
lively, walking about the room and always settling on the 
hearth-rug. It had a great genius for climbing, and would 
sometimes spend nearly an hour in endeavoring to scale 
the fender, probably attracted by the heat. Unfit as the 
form of the creature may seem for such a purpose, it did 



212 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



contrive to scramble upon a footstool which was placed by 
the fender. Its method of attaining this elevation was as 
follows : First it reared up against the footstool in the angle 
formed by it and the fender, and after several ineffectual 
attempts, succeeded in hitching the claws of one of its 
hind feet into the open work of the fender. On this it 
raised itself, and held on to the top of the stool by its fore- 
feet, while it gained another step on the fender, and so 
managed to raise itself to such a height that it only had 
to fall flat on the top of the footstool. When once there 
it could hardly be induced to leave the elevation which it 
had gained with such difficulty. 

Its food consisted of bread and milk, which it ate several 
times a day, drinking the milk by scooping up some of it 
in its lower jaw, and then, by throwing its head back, the 
milk ran down its throat. Tortoises are generally long- 
lived, but this animal died within a few months after it 
came into my possession, in all probability because, for 
some days, its food was placed in a brass vessel. 

The Green Turtle. The feet of the Marine Tortoises, 
or Turtles, are modified into fins or flippers, just as are the 
feet of the Seals, and consequently, although the Turtles 
are active in the water, on land their walk is nothing but 
an awkward shuffle. The flippers, however, are admirable 
instruments for scooping out the sand, in which the eggs 
are laid, and afterwards covered over. Nearly 200 eggs 
are laid in one nest. The eggs are held in great estima- 
tion, but the albumen, or u white," does not become hard 
by boiling. 

The Green Turtle, whose flesh is considered such a 
luxury, is common in Jamaica and most of the islands of 
the East and West Indies. The Turtles are captured by 
turning them on their backs ; for the carapace is so flat, 
and their legs are so short, that they are forced to lie help- 
less until their captors have leisure to drag them away. 
The Green Turtle has been known to reach the weight of 



CROCODILE. 



213 



600 pounds. The tortoise-shell of commerce is almost en- 
tirely obtained from the Hawksbill Turtle. 

The Crocodile. These animals are separated from the 




Green Turtle. 



Lizards on account of the peculiar horny covering with 
which they are protected. 

The Crocodile is an inhabitant of the Old World, the 
Alligator of the Xew, and the two animals are best dis- 



214 NATURAL HISTORY. 

tinguished by the construction of the jaws. In the Croco- 
diles the lower canine teeth fit into a notch in the edge of 
the upper jaw, and there is in consequence a contraction 
of the muzzle just behind the nostrils. The lower canine 
teeth of the Alligators fit into a pit in the edge of the upper 
jaw, and in consequence no contraction is needed. At 
the back of the throat is a valve completely shutting out 
water, but leaving the passage to the nostrils free, so that 
the Crocodile can keep his mouth open when beneath the 
surface, without swallowing the water, or can hold his 
prey down to drown under the water, while he breathes at 
ease with his nostrils at the surface. There is no true 
tongue. 

The Crocodile inhabits many African rivers, and is, 
probably, the reptile infesting the Ganges. The Nile, how- 
ever, is the best known haunt of this terrible creature. It 
feeds on fish, floating carrion, and dogs, or other animals, 
which it is enabled to surprise as they come to drink at 
the water's edge ; but man frequently falls a victim to its 
voracity. In revenge for this treatment, all nations per- 
secuted with this pest have devised various methods of 
killing it. The negroes of some parts of Africa are suffi- 
ciently bold and skilful to attack the Crocodile in his own 
element. They fearlessly plunge into the water, and div- 
ing beneath him, plunge the dagger with which they are 
armed into the creature's belly, which is not protected by 
the coat of mail that guards the other parts of its body. 
The usual plan is to lie in wait near the spot where the 
Crocodile is accustomed to repose. This is usually a sand- 
bank, and the hunter digs a hole in the sand, and, armed 
with a sharp harpoon, patiently awaits the coming of his 
expected prey. The Crocodile comes to its accustomed 
spot, and is soon asleep, when it is suddenly roused by 
the harpoon, which penetrates completely through its scaly 
covering. The hunter immediately retreats to a canoe, and 
hauls at the line attached to the harpoon until he drags 



ALLIGATOR. 



215 



the Crocodile to the surface, when he darts a second har- 
poon. The struggling animal is soon wearied out, dragged 
to the shore, and dispatched by dividing the spinal cord. 
In order to prevent the infuriated reptile from biting the 
cord asunder, it is composed of about thirty small lines, not 
twisted, but only bound together at intervals of two feet. 




Nile Crocodile. 

When on land it is not difficult to escape the Crocodile, 
as certain projections on the vertebrae of the neck prevent 
it from turning its head to any great extent. 

The eggs of this creature are very small, hardly ex- 
ceeding those of a goose ; numbers are annually destroyed 
by birds of prey and quadrupeds, especially the Ich- 
neumon. 

The Alligator is an inhabitant of the New World, and 



216 NATURAL HISTORY. 

is common in our southern rivers. It pursues fish with 
exceeding dexterity, by driving a shoal of them into a 
creek, and then plunging amid the terrified mass, and de- 
vouring its victims at its pleasure. It also catches pigs, 
dogs, and other animals that venture too close to the river. 
In that case, as the animal is too large to be swallowed en- 
tire, the Alligator conceals it in some hole in the bank 
until it begins to putrefy, when it is dragged out and de- 
voured under the concealment of the rank herbage fring- 
ing the river. 

The usual method of taking this creature is by baiting a 
most formidable four-pointed hook, composed of wooden 
spikes artistically arranged, and suffering it to float in the 
river. When an Alligator has swallowed it, he is hauled 
on the shore by the rope and slaughtered. 

Like the Crocodile, the Alligator lays its eggs in the 
sandy bank of the river. Fortunately, but few of the 
young ever reach maturity, as their ranks are thinned by 
various birds and beasts of prey before the eggs are 
hatched, and by the attacks of large fishes, and even their 
own species, when they have reached the water. 

The appearance and habits of the Frog and the Toad 
are so familiar as to require but little description. A short 
account, however, is necessary of the peculiarities common 
to both Frogs and Toads. 

In the early stage of their existence, these animals are 
termed tadpoles. They at first appear to be nothing but 
head and tail, but after several days have passed, four legs 
are observed to become developed. These rapidly in- 
crease, and the little creature closely resembles a small 
eft. In due time, however, the tail is lost, and the creature 
becomes a perfect Frog. Another important change also 
takes place. In its tadpole state the creature was essen- 
tially a water animal, but after its change has taken place 
it is not able to exist under water for any great length of 
time, and is forced to come to the surface to breathe. 



218 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



The tongue of the Frog is curiously fixed almost at the 
entrance of the mouth, and when at rest points backwards 
down the throat. When, however, the Frog comes within 
reach of a slug or insect, the tongue is darted out with 
exceeding rapidity, the slug secured, carried to the back of 
the throat, and swallowed. 

Both Frogs and Toads hibernate, the former congregating 
in multitudes in the mud at the bottom of ponds and 
marshes, while the latter choose a hole in the ground, fre- 
quently at the roots of a tree, and pass the winter in soli- 
tary dignity. 

The skin of these animals has the property of imbibing 
water, so that if an apparently emaciated Frog is placed in 
a damp place, it will soon look quite plump. 

The Common Frog is a well-known frequenter of marshy 
places and the banks of rivers. It is an admirable swim- 
mer, and from the peculiar construction of its lungs can 
remain for some time under water, but is forced periodi- 
cally to come to the surface for the purpose of breathing. 

The Bull-Frog is an inhabitant of North America. It is 
very voracious, feeding upon fishes, mollusks, and even 
young fowl. Its powers of leaping are so great that an 
Indian was not able to overtake an irritated Bull-Frog after 
it had sprung three hops in advance. It is very large, 
measuring about seven inches in length. 

The Tree Frogs are very peculiar animals. The con- 
struction of their feet, something resembling that of the 
geckos, enables them to traverse the branches, and even 
to hang on the under surface of a pendant leaf, which it 
so resembles in color that the unwary insect passes by 
and is instantly seized by the watchful frog. The Green 
Tree Frog is the most common, and is plentifully found in 
southern Europe and northern Africa. There are several 
specimens in the Zoological Gardens, which present a most 
absurd appearance as they stick against the pane of glass 
forming the front of their cage. 



TOAD. 219 

The Toad has had its full share of marvellous tales. Its 
poisonous properties are celebrated in many an ancient 
chronicle, as are also the virtues of the jewel contained in 
its head. 

Its skin certainly does secrete an acrid humor, which 
defends it from dogs, who can seldom be induced to bite 
a Toad a second time. 

The Toad is easily tamed. I have known one that lived 
in the family for several years, and was accustomed to sup 
on a lump of sugar. 

The well-known instances of imprisoned Toads who must 
have spent many years in their narrow habitations are 
apparently explained by the supposition that some aper- 
ture or fissure existed, through which air and minute in- 
sects could pass, sufficient for their nourishment while in 
a semi-torpid condition. Those experimented on by Dr. 
Buckland, and from whom all air was cut off, died before 
a year's imprisonment. The Toad casts its skin at certain 
times, but we never find the slough, as we do that of the 
snake, as the Toad invariably swallows its former covering. 

Our last example of this large and interesting family is 
the Crowned Tapayaxin, one of the singular North Ameri- 
can reptiles which are popularly known by the name of 
Horned Toads, their general form and mode of sitting 
being extremely toad-like. 

This animal is not at all uncommon in California, and 
is said when at liberty in its wild state to move with much 
rapidity over the ground in search of its insect prey. Its 
habits in confinement, however, do not carry out this 
statement, as it is then sluggish to a degree, remaining for 
many consecutive hours in precisely the same attitude, 
heedless of the falling rain or the burning rays of the sun, 
and scarcely changing its position even when pushed with 
the finger. It is quite harmless, in spite of its very formid- 
able looks, and does not attempt to avenge itself upon its 
captor, however roughly it may be handled. After a while 



220 NATURAL HISTORY. 

it can be made to know its owner, and it will even take 
flies and other insects out of his hand. Little red ants 
seem to be its favorite food, but it lives on beetles and in- 
sects of various kinds. 

I possessed for some time one of these Lizards, which 
was sent by post from Brazil, and arrived in very good 
health. It was kept in a box partly filled w T ith sand, and 
seemed to have but two phases of existence — either lying 
so motionless as scarcely to be distinguishable from the 
sand, or darting about so quickly that the eye could hardly 
follow its movements. A specimen which my brother had 
in Brazil was quite tame, and used to run in and out of 
the house as it liked. It had a habit of sitting on a box, 
watching the floor, and whenever a fly settled, jumping 
down on it with unerring certainty of aim. 

The head of this curious reptile is armed with long, 
pointed, conical spines, set around its edge and directed 
backward. Shorter and stouter spines, but of a triangular 
shape, are scattered over the back, and extend even over 
the odd, short and pointed tail. Each edge of the tail is 
armed with a strong row of spines, giving it a regularly 
toothed appearance. The general color of the Crowned 
Tapayaxin is gray, variegated with several irregular bands 
of rich chestnut-brown. The head is light brown, blotched 
with a darker hue, and the under parts are ochry yellow, 
marked with sundry blotches of dark gray.. 

The Newts are separated from the Lizards on account of 
their changes while young. Like the Frogs, they are first 
tadpoles, and do not assume their perfect shape until six 
weeks after their exclusion from the eggs. 

The Newt is a beautiful inhabitant of the ponds, ditches 
and still waters. It feeds principally on tadpoles and 
worms, which it eats with a peculiar rapid snap. I have 
frequently seen it attack the smaller Newt with great per- 
severance, but I never saw it kill its prey. 

I kept some Newts for some time in a large glass vessel, 



* 



PROTEUS. 221 

and noticed that when a new inhabitant was added, it al- 
ways cast its skin within two or three days. The skin came 
off in pieces, the covering of the feet slipping off like a 
glove, but I could never see how the creature contrived to 
pull these glove-like relics off. 

It is constantly in the habit of rising to the surface of 
the water in order to breathe. 

The Newt has received the name of Cristatus. or crested, 
on account of the beautiful crimson-tipped wavy crest of 
loose skin that extends along the whole course of the back 
and tail, and which, together with the rich orange-colored 
belly, makes it a most beautiful creature. The female has a 
singular habit of laying her eggs upon long leaves of water- 
plants, and tying them in the leaf by a regular knot. 

The Proteus is an extraordinary animal, which has been 
found in dark subterranean lakes, many hundred feet be- 
low the surface of the earth, where no ray of light can pos- 
sibly enter. The eyes of this singular creature are mere 
points covered with skin, and useless for vision ; indeed, 
when in captivity, it always chooses the darkest part of the 
vessel in which it is confined. 

I have seen seven specimens of this strange creature, 
which have lived for several years in a glass vessel covered 
with green baize in order to keep them in the dark. They 
have not been known to take any nourishment whatever 
during the time of their captivity, except the very trifling 
amount of nutrition that might have been obtained by 
changing the water. 

The Proteus breathes in two ways — by lungs and by 
gills ; the latter organs appearing in the form of two tufts, 
one on each side of the neck, just above the fore limbs. 
The circulation of the blood in these branchial tufts can 
easily be seen with a microscope. Exposure to light 
darkens the tints both of gills and body. It has been 
proved to be a perfect animal, and has been found of all 
sizes. 



222 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



The blood-disks of this animal are exceedingly large, so 
large, indeed, as almost to be distinguished by the naked 
eye. When in captivity, its movements are slow and eel- 
like, nor does it seem to make much use of its almost rudi- 
mentary limbs. 




The Proteus. 



It has usually been found on the soft mud of a small 
lake in the grotto of Maddalena, at Adelsburg ; they have 
also been found at Sittich, thirty miles distant, thrown up 
from a subterranean cavity. 



INSECTS. 

The Tiger-beetle. — The body of an insect is divided 
or cut into three parts, called the head, the thorax, and the 
abdomen. The body is defended by a horny integument, 




Tiger-Beetles. 

divided into rings, and divided by a softer membrane. 
The legs are six in number. Many insects possess wings, 
and in all the rudiments of those organs are perceptible. 
The eyes are compound, that is, a number of eyes are 
massed together at each side of the head ; and so numer- 
ous are they that in the compound eye of the Ant are fifty 

(223) 



224 NATURAL HISTORY. 

lenses, in the House-fly 8,000, in the Butterfly 17,000, and 
in the Hawk-moth 20,000. 

The insects pass through three transformations before 
they attain their perfect form. The first state is called 
the larva, because the future insect is masked under that 
form ; the second is called the pupa, on account of the 
shape often assumed; and the third is called imago, as 
being the image of the perfect creature. Insects breathe 
by means of air-tubes which penetrate to every part of the 
body, even to the extremities of the limbs, antennae and 
wings. The air gains access to the tubes by means of 
small apertures called spiracles. The tubes are prevented 
from collapsing by a delicate thread wound spirally be- 
tween the two membranes of which the tubes are com- 
posed. This wonderful and beautiful arrangement not 
only prevents the tubes from collapsing, but keeps them 
flexible. There are, according to Stephens, fourteen orders 
of insects. Examples will be given of each and their names 
explained. The most perfect insects are placed first. 

There are two great divisions of insects, namely, those 
which bite and eat solid food with jaws, as the Beetles, 
Locusts, Bees, etc., and those which suck liquid food 
through a proboscis, as the Butterflies, Flies, etc. The first 
order of insects derives its name from the sheath or cover- 
ing with w r hich the wings are defended. This is a very 
extensive order. The first in order are the Tiger-beetles, 
so called from their activity and voracity. The most com- 
mon of these is the ordinary Green Tiger-beetle that may 
be seen any hot summer's day glancing in the sun on 
sandy banks. The beauty of this insect is beyond de- 
scription. The upper surface of the body is a deep, dead 
green, changing under the microscope to a glossy gold, 
shot with red and green ; the surface of the abdomen cov- 
ered by the wings and the entire under surface of the body 
are brilliant emerald green, and when the insect is on the 
wing it sparkles in the sun like a flying gem. When 



COCKCHAFFEE. 225 

handled it gives forth a scent closely resembling that of 
the verbena. It is indeed as beautiful among insects as 
the tiger is among beasts, and is perhaps the more fero- 
cious of the two. It runs and flies with great activity, 
and takes to its wings as easily as a bee or fly, and is, in 
consequence, difficult to capture without a net. Its jaws 
are long, sharp, curved like a sickle, and armed with sev- 
eral teeth. Its eyes are large and prominent, enabling it 
to see on all sides. Its length is rather more than half 
an inch. 

The Ground-beetle is one of the largest and most beau- 
tiful beetles. Its general color is a coppery-green, and its 
wing-cases are ornamented with several rows of oblong 
raised spots. Its length is about an inch. 

The Lamellicorn Beetles are exceedingly useful to 
mankind. Many of them act as scavengers and farmers, 
for they not only remove putrefying substances from the 
surface of the ground, but bury them beneath. 

The Dor-Beetle is a very common insect. At the ap- 
proach of evening it may be seen whirling around in the 
air with a dull, humming sound. The country children 
call it the Watchman, comparing it to the watchman going 
his rounds in the evening. It usually lays its eggs on a 
rounded mass of cow-dung, and then buries the whole 
mass in the ground. When caught, it pretends to be 
dead. 

The Stag-beetle is the largest of insects. Although so 
formidably armed it is quite harmless, and only uses its 
enormous jaws to break the tender bark of trees in order 
that the sap on which it feeds may exude. The mouth 
of this beetle is very small, and is furnished with a brush, 
with which it licks up the food. Several of these beetles 
lived for some months on moist sugar. During the winter 
it hides in the earth, making for itself a kind of cave, very 
smooth inside. This beetle is common in Germany. 

The Cockchaffer needs little description. Its larva 

15 



226 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



works great mischief during the spring, as it feeds on the 
roots of plants, and cuts them off with its sharp, sickle- 
like jaws. Where many of these u grubs " have been, the 
grass curls up, and dries like hay. Fortunately the 
thrushes, blackbirds, rooks, and many other birds, are in- 
veterate destroyers of the grubs, and devour myriads of 
them. It is for this purpose that these birds pull up the 
grass, and not to spoil or devour the herbage, as is gener- 
ally supposed. 




COCKCHAFFER — STAG-BEETLE. 



The huge Hercules and Atlas Beetles, and, larger still, 
the Goliath Beetle, belong to the Lamellicorns. 

The Glowworm maybe seen in the warm summer even- 
ings, shedding its pale-green light on the grassy banks. 
The female insect gives out a much stronger light than the 
male, and there is some light visible even in the larva. 
The light of this insect proceeds from the abdomen. The 
light given out by the Firefly, another kind of beetle in- 
habiting South America, proceeds from three yellow tuber- 
cles placed on the throat. The grub or larva of the Glow- 
worm is of a singular form, and is furnished with a brush 
at the extremity of the tail, with which it cleanses its body 



ROVE-BEETLES. 



227 



from dust or the slime of the snails on which it frequently 
feeds. 

The Musk-beetles vary considerably in size, some being 
several inches in 
length, while some are 
hardly one-quarter of 
an inch long. The ex- 
treme length of their 
antennae is the most 
conspicuous property, 
and from that peculi- 
arity they are at once 
recognized. 

It is a large insect, 
and is usually found 
in old willow-trees. 
Its peculiar scent, 
something resembling 
that of roses, often be- 
trays its presence 
when its green color 
would have kept it 
concealed. When 

touched it emits a 
curious sound, not 
unlike that of the bat, 
but more resembling 
the faint scratching 
of a slate-pencil. Its 
larva bores deep holes 
in the trees, which 
are often quite honey- 
corned by them. 

The Rove-beetles form an extensive section. Some are 
so small as to require the assistance of the microscope to 
discover their shape, and others are more than an inch in 




Musk-Beetle. 



228 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




Rove-Beetles. 




Colorado Potato-Beetle in all 
its Stages (Natural Size). 



length. The small species 
are usually on the wing, 
and it is very amusing to 
see them alight, and with 
their flexible tails tuck 
their long and beautifully- 
shaped wings under the 
elytra, run about for a 
moment, and then again 
take to flight. These are 
the creatures that cause so 
much annoyance by fly- 
ing into one's mouth or 
eye in the warm and sultry 
months. 

The Great Rove-beetle 
is commonly found upon 
decaying animal sub- 
stances. It is most for- 
midably armed with tw T o 
large, curved, sharp man- 
dibles, the bite of which 
is tolerably severe, and 
more than once, when the 
creature has been recently 






EARWIG. 



229 



feeding upon putrid substances, dangerous results have 
followed. 

Water-beetles inhabit the water and swim with ac- 
tivity. They occasionally come to the surface for a fresh 
supply of air, which they carry down between the elytra 
and the upper surface of the abdomen. They fly very 




Water-Beetles. 

well, but the construction of their limbs prevents them 
from walking. They cannot be kept in a limited space, 
as they are very fierce and voracious, and in one case, 
when a male and female w r ere placed in a jar filled with 
water, only one day elapsed before the male was found 
dead and half devoured by his disconsolate widow. 

The Earwig is placed in an order by itself. The wings 
are large and beautiful, and the method of folding by 



230 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



which they are packed under the very small elytra is very 
curious. The use of the forceps is for the purpose of fold- 
ing the wings and placing them in their proper position 
under their cases. Its eggs are hatched and the young 
protected by the parent. 

The Locust. These pests of the warmer countries of the 
earth fly in countless myriads, and where they descend 
they devour every particle of green herbage — the trees are 
stripped of their leaves, the grass and corn are eaten to 
the very ground; for their jaws are so strong as to inflict 
a severe wound when the insect is incautiously handled. 
Nor does the mischief end with their life, for their dead 
bodies often accumulate in such numbers that the air is 
even dangerously infected. They infest America, Africa 
and Central Asia, but they annually make incursions to 
Europe, where the damage they occasion is much less 
reparable than in their native lands ; for there the power 
of vegetation is so great that a few 
days repair the injuries caused by 
them, but in Europe a whole year is 
required for that purpose. Our 
Grasshoppers belong to this order. 

The House Cricket delights to live 
in places that are always warm, and 
is found swarming about ovens, 
kitchen fire-places and localities of a 
similar nature. It makes its resi- 
dence by cutting away the mortar 
with its powerful jaws, and so effect- 
ually will it do so that it sometimes 
eats completely through the wall, 
opening communications between 
two or more houses. The manner in which it bears heat 
is wonderful, as it will live within a few inches of a fierce 
fire. 




House Cricket. 



LEAF INSECT. 



231 



The heat of the atmosphere in which it lives renders it 
very liable to thirst, and it seeks every opportunity of 
quenching its thirst by gnawing holes in wet linen, de- 
vouring any moist crumbs that may lie on the floor, or 
boldly climbing the milk-pan, in which latter case it gets 
a little too much liquid, and is generally " found drowned " 
next morning. 

The wings of this insect, as well as those of the Field 
Cricket, are very beautiful, and 
marked with an elegant pat- 
tern. The Cricket never ap- 
pears to use them except at 
night, when it may be taken 
on the wing. 

The curious insect called the 
Mole Cricket is not uncom- 
mon. It inhabits sandy banks, 
digging deep holes and form- 
ing chambers, in which its 
eggs are laid. The forelegs 
closely resemble those of the 
Mole, and are used for the 
same purpose. 

The Leaf Insect is an in- FlELD Cricket. 

habitant of South America. 

It resembles a leaf in shape and in color, and its legs may 
easily be mistaken for dry twigs. Even the ramified vein- 
ings of the leaf are preserved on its wings. It is singular 
that while some insects closely resemble vegetables, some 
vegetables, as the Orchidacese, should as closely resemble 
insects. Nearly connected with this insect is the Praying 
Mantis, so called from the curious manner in which it 
holds its forelegs. It is very voracious and quarrelsome, 
fighting with its forelegs, which it uses like a sword. In 
China the inhabitants keep them in cages, and set them 




232 



NATURAL HISTORY 



to fight as in other countries certain barbarians keep cocks 
for the same purpose. 

The Cockroach has suffered under the hand of house- 
wives, who express their abhorrence of it under the name 
of " black beetle." It is not black, it is not a beetle, and 
its color is a mahogany red. But, red or black, beetle or 
not, it is a very great plague, and fully deserves all the 
maledictions heaped upon it. 

Its unpleasant character has caused innumerable plans 
to be laid for its destruction. Among these, strewing the 
ground with the peel of cucumber or with red wafers is 
said to be effectual in destroying the Cockroaches, but 
perhaps no plan is so successful as the glass pan with 
sloping sides, which lets the insects fall in but prevents 
their escape altogether. 

The eggs of the Cockroach are deposited, indeed, in little 
cases or purses, something like those of the shark, but with- 
out the strings. Down one side a thick-toothed ridge runs, 
and by this ridge the young escape when hatched. 

The male Cockroach is furnished with very handsome 
wings, while the female is entirely destitute of these organs, 
and only possesses four little scales to mark their position. 

The Common May-fly is so well-known an insect that 
it needs no long description. It is the fly so familiar to 
anglers under the name of the " Drake." It is to be found 
in swarms in the beginning of June, rising and falling in 
the air in its peculiarly undulating manner. 

The May-fly spends the first portion of its existence in 
the water under the shape of a longish grub, with leaf- 
like appendages to its tail. About May the grubs may 
be seen to leave the water and to crawl up the banks or 
climb the stems of aquatic plants. The skin then splits, 
and the May-fly creeps out. But it cannot immediately 
fly, as its wings are soft and like two split peas. A short 



DRAGOX-FLIES. 



233 



interval of exercise in the open air soon loosens them, and 
they are gradually shaken out until they have attained 
their full, size, when the 
insect flies off. There is, 
however, another change 
yet. In a short time the 
insect again settles, and 
sheds the entire skin a 
second time, even includ- 
ing the covering of the 
wings. These cast skins 
are often found sticking 
on the bark of willow- 
trees by the side of 
waters, and are mis- 
taken for dead May- flies. 

Well do the Dragon- 
flies deserve their name. 
Fierce, voracious, active 
and powerful, they are a 
scourge to the insects. 
They are on the wing 
nearly the whole day, 
seizing and devouring flies, spiders, and various insects ; 
nor can even the broad-winged butterfly escape them. So 
voracious are they that when held in the hand they will 
devour flies, etc., if held within their reach, and they have 
even been known, when their bodies have been severed in 
two, to eat flies, although they had no stomach to put them 
in. I once caught a Dragon-fly in my net, and while hold- 
ing it by the w T ings I presented to it no less than thirty- 
seven large flies in rapid succession, all of which it de- 
voured, together with four long-legged spiders. It would 
probably have eaten as many more, had I not been tired 
of catching flies for it. 

The larva of the Dragon-fly inhabits the water, and is 




May-Fly. 



234 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



quite as voracious as in its perfect state. Affixed to its 
head is a curious set of organs, called the mask, which it 
can extend, and use for the purpose of seizing its prey 
and holding it to its month. 

The Ant- Lion, in its perfect form, although it is very ele- 
gant, exhibits no peculiarity worthy of notice, but in its 




Ant-Lion. 

larva state its habits are so extraordinary as to have ex- 
cited general attention. As it is slow and awkward in its 
movements, it has recourse to stratagem for capturing the 
agile insects on which it feeds. Choosing a light, sandy 



TERMITES. 235 

soil, it digs for itself a conical pit, at the bottom of which 
it conceals itself, leaving only its jaws exposed. When an 
unwary insect approaches too near the edge of the pit the 
sand gives way, and down rolls the insect into the very 
teeth of the concealed Ant- Lion, who instantly pierces its 
prey with its calliper-shaped fangs and sucks out its juices 
through the jaws, which are hollow. Should, however, 
the Ant-Lion miss its prey, and the insect endeavor to 
escape, its captor instantly makes such a turmoil by toss- 
ing up the sand with its closed jaws and covering each 
side of the pit with the moving grains that the insect is 
tolerably certain to be brought down to the bottom, and 
is seized by the Ant-Lion, who immediately drags it below 
the sand. When the insect is very strong, and struggles 
hard to escape, the Ant- Lion shakes it about as a dog does 
a rat, and beats it against the ground until it is disabled. 

The Termites or White Ants, as they are very errone- 
ously called, are not ants at all. These insects live in 
large societies and build edifices, sometimes of enormous 
size, and almost as hard as stone. Twelve feet in height 
is quite common, so that were we to compare our works 
with theirs, the Capitol at Washington falls infinitely short 
of the edifices constructed by these little creatures. The 
common Termite inhabits Africa. Not only does it build 
these houses, but runs galleries underground, as, curiously 
enough, though blind, it works either at night or in dark- 
ness. In each house or community there are five different 
kinds of Termites: — 1, the single male, or king, whose life 
is very short; 2, the single female, or queen. These are 
the perfect insects, and have had wings, but have lost them 
soon after their admission into their cell ; they also have 
eyes ; 3, the soldiers or fighting men : these possess large 
jaws, do no work, but repel adversaries and watch as sen- 
tinels ; 4, the pupse, who resemble the workers, except that 
they possess the rudiments of wings ; and, 5, the larvae, or 



236 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



workers. These do all the ivork, i. e., they collect food, at- 
tend to the queen, and watch over the eggs and young, and 
build and repair their castle. These are more numerous 
than all the other kinds. 

On the approach of the rainy season the pupse obtain 
wings and issue forth in swarms. Few, however, survive. 
Myriads are devoured by birds, reptiles, and even by man, 
and many are carried out to sea and perish there. Those 
that do escape are speedily found by the laborers, who 
inclose a pair in a cell, from which they never emerge. 
The male soon dies, but the female, after rapidly increas- 
ing to nearly three inches in length and one in breadth, 
continues to lay eggs unceasingly for a very long time. 
This cell becomes the nucleus of the hive, and around it all 
other cells and galleries are built. 

These insects are terribly destructive, as they eat through 
wooden beams, furniture, etc., leaving only a thin shell, 
which is broken down with the least extra weight ; and 
many are the occasions when an unsuspecting individual, 
on seating himself on an apparently sound sofa or chair, 
finds himself, like Belzoni in the pyramid, reposing among 
a heap of dust and splinters. 

Mr. Cumming describes the habitations of the White 
Ant in these terms : — 

" Throughout the greater part of the plains frequented 
by blesboks, numbers of the sun-baked hills or mounds of 
clay formed by white ants occur. The average height of 
the ant-hills in these districts is from two to three feet. 
They are generally distant from one another from one to 
three hundred yards, being more or less thickly placed in 
different parts. These ant-hills are of the greatest service 
to the hunter, enabling him with facility to conceal him- 
self on the otherwise open plain," 

The Caddis-fly is well-known to every angler, both in 
its larva and in its perfect state. The larva is a soft white 




Termites: An Ant Hell. 



238 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



worm, of ^ which fishes are exceedingly fond, and it there- 
fore requires some means of defence. It accordingly actu- 
ally makes for itself a movable house of sand, small stones, 

straws, bits of 
shells, or even 
small living shells, 
in which it lives in 
perfect security, 
and crawls about 
in search af food, 
dragging its house 
after it. When it 
is about to become 
a pupa it spins a 
strong silk grating 
over the entrance 
of its case, so that 
the water neces- 
sary for its respi- 
ration can pass 
through, but at 
the same time all 
enemies are kept 
out. When the time for its change has arrived the pupa 
bites through the grating, rises to the surface, and crawls 
out of reach of the water which would soon be fatal to it. 
The skin then splits down its back and the perfect insect 
emerges. 

The Ichneumon-fly. — We have now reached a most 
important and interesting order. In it are contained the 
Bees, Wasps, Ants, etc. This is the only order where the 
insects possess stings. The wings are four in number, with 
certain veinings upon them, the shape and number of 
which in many cases distinguish the species. 

The Ichneumons form a very large section. They are 




Caddis-Fly. 



WOOD ANT. 239 

most useful to mankind, as one Ichneumon will destroy 
more caterpillars than a man could kill in his lifetime. 
They do not, as most other insects, deposit their eggs upon 
vegetable or dead animal substances, but they actually 
bore holes in other insects, while they are still in the larva 
state, and leave the eggs to hatch in their living receptacle. 
The most common Ichneumon is a very small insect, not 
so large as an ordinary gnat. This little creature may be 
seen searching for caterpillars. It generally selects the 
common cabbage caterpillar, and, sitting upon it, pierces 
with its sting the skin of the caterpillar, and deposits an 
egg. After repeating this operation many times it flies off, 
and the caterpillar proceeds as before in the great business 
of its life, that is, eating, and continues in apparently per- 
fect health until the time for its change into the chrysalis 
state occurs. The good condition of it, however, is merely 
deceptive, for the offspring of the little Ichneumon have 
all this while been silently increasing in size, and feeding 
on the fat, etc., of the caterpillar, but cautiously avoiding 
any vital part, so that the plump appearance of the cater- 
pillar is merely produced by the young Ichneumons lying 
snugly under the skin. Just as the caterpillar commences 
its change, out come all the Ichneumons, looking like little 
white maggots, and immediately each spins for itself a yel- 
low oval case, frequently enveloping the form of the now 
emaciated caterpillar. In a few days a little lid on the 
top of each case opens, and the perfect flies issue forth, and 
immediately commence their own work of destruction. 

I have examined hundreds of caterpillars in the course 
of dissection, and have seldom found them free from Ich- 
neumons. I took out of one small goat caterpillar 137 of 
these insidious destroyers. I found them useful auxil- 
iaries in dissection, as they had usually consumed all the 
fat, leaving the important organs ready cleared. 

The Wood Ant is found principally in woods, and 



240 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



builds a nest of sand and earth, intermixed with bits of 
sticks, leaves, etc. The interior of this hill is cham- 
bered out into a variety of apartments, and is traversed 
by passages. The so-called ants' eggs are not eggs at all, 
but the pupa cases of the insect, and if opened, the per- 
fect insect is seen curled up inside. In the autumn the 
Ants burst forth by thousands, and may be seen hover- 
ing in clouds above the nest. Their beautiful wings do 
not last long, for when a female Ant escapes, and founds 
an infant colony, her wings are soon lost, just as a highly- 
accomplished young lady gives up her velvet painting and 
cross-stitchery when she marries and has a large family. 
Few do escape, as the birds find these living clouds a most 
agreeable and plentiful repast. 

Ants do not, as has been so frequently said, lay up stores 
of corn for the winter, for they are in a state of torpidity 
during the cold months, and require no food. Moreover, 

an Ant would find as much 
difficulty in eating or digest- 
ing a grain of corn as we would 
in devouring a truss of straw. 
In each nest are three kinds 
of Ants — males, females and 
neuters, or workers. 




Let us honor the Wasps as 
the first papermakers, for of 
that material is the nest com- 
posed. The paper is rough 
and coarse, certainly, but it is 
still paper. The Wasp, in 
order to make this paper, 
rasps off fibers of decayed wood, which it afterwards 
mashes with its teeth into a pulp, and then spreads the 
pulp in layers, when it ultimately hardens and forms 
coarse paper. 



Wasp. 



BEE. 



241 




Hornet. 



The dreaded Hornet is usually found in woods, where 
it builds its nest in the hollows of trees. A deserted hut 
is a favorite spot, and 
when occupied by a 
full nest of hornets 
is not particularly 
safe to enter, as the 
sting of this insect is 
peculiarly severe. 

It feeds upon other 
insects, and even at- 
tacks and devours the 
formidable wasp. 

The Common Wasp 
builds its nest in the 
ground, usually in 
banks. The comb is 
laid horizontally , and 

not vertically like those of the bee. As the cells are made 
of paper, they will not hold honey, nor does the Wasp en- 
deavor to collect honey, although it is very fond of it, and 
never loses an opportunity of robbing a bee-hive, although 
its natural food is flies or other animal substances. Nor 
does it despise sugar, as every grocer's window testifies. 
Very few Wasps survive the winter, and those that do im- 
mediately set about forming a new nest. Only a few cells 
are made at first, but the number rapidly increases, until 
the nest is furnished with about sixteen thousand cells. 

Some W r asps build nests upon the branches of trees, and 
others suspend them from the branches. 

The Bee is so well known that a lengthened description 
of it would be useless. A merely general sketch will be 
quite sufficient. 

The cells of the Bee are, as is well known, made of wax. 
This wax is secreted in the form of scales under six little 

16 



242 



NATURAL HISTORY. 




flaps situated on the under side of the insect. It is then 
pulled out by the Bee, and molded with other scales until 
a tenacious piece of wax is formed. The yellow substance 
on the legs of the Bees is the pollen of flowers. This is 
kneaded up by the Bees, and is called bee-bread. 

The cells are six-sided, a form which gives the greatest 
space and strength with the least amount of material, but 

the method employed by the Bees 
to give the cells that shape is not 
known. The cells in which the 
drone or male Bees are hatched are 
much larger than those of the ordi- 
nary or worker Bee. The edges of 
the cells are strengthened with a 
substance called propolis, which is 
a gummy material procured from 
the buds of various trees. This 
propolis is also used to stop up 
crevices and to mix with wax when 
the comb has to be strengthened. 

The royal cells are much larger 
than any others, and are of an oval 
shape. When a worker larva is 
placed in a royal cell, and fed in a 
royal manner, it imbibes the prin- 
ciples of royalty and becomes a queen accordingly. This 
practice is adopted if the queen bee should die and there 
be no other queen to take her place. 

The queen Bee is lady paramount in her own hive, and 
suffers no other queen to divide rule with her. Should a 
strange queen gain admittance there is a battle at once, 
which ceases not until one has been destroyed. 

At the swarming-time the old queen is sadly put out by 
the encroachments of various young queens, who each 
wish for the throne, and at last is so agitated that she 
rushes out of the hive, attended by a large body of sub- 




1, Male ; 2, Female ; 
3, Drone. 




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24-i NATURAL HISTORY. 

jects, and thus the first swarm is formed. In seven or 
eight days the queen next in age also departs, taking with 
her another supply of subjects. When all the swarms 
have left the original hive, the remaining queens fight un- 
til one gains the throne. 

The old method of destroying Bees for the sake of the 
honey was not only cruel but wasteful, as by burning some 
dry " puff-ball " the Bees are stupefied, and shortly return 
to consciousness. The employment of a " cap " on the 
hive is an excellent plan, as the Bees deposit honey alone 
in these caps, without any admixture of grubs or bee- 
bread. Extra hives at the side, with a communication 
from the original hive, are also useful. 

The queen Bee lays about 18,000 eggs. Of these about 
800 are males or drones, and four or five queens, the re- 
mainder being workers. 

Butterflies are usually lighter in the body than Moths, 
from which insects they are easily distinguished by the 
shape of the antennae, which in the Butterflies are slender 
and terminate in a small knob, but in the Moths terminate 
in a point, and are often beautifully fringed. 

The Swallow-tailed Butterfly flies with exceeding 
rapidity, nearly in a straight line, and is very difficult to 
capture. 

The color of the wings is black, variegated most beauti- 
fully with yellow markings, and near the extremity of 
each hinder wing is a circular red spot, surmounted by a 
crescent of blue, and the whole surrounded by a black ring. 

The Red Admiral is one of the most gorgeous of But- 
terflies. The color of the wings is a deep black, relieved 
by a broad band of scarlet across each, and a series of 
semicircular blue marks edge each wing. It is usually 
found in woods and lanes, where there are nettles, as the 
larva feeds upon that plant. It appears about the middle 
of August. 



DEATH'S-HEAD MOTH. 



245 



The Death's-head Moth not unfrequently measures 
nearly six inches across the wings. Its rather ominous 
name is derived from the singular marking in the thorax, 
which does not require much imagination to represent a 
skull and cross-bones. 




Hawk-Moth — Death' s-Head Moth. 

Some naturalists have asserted that this Moth makes its 
way into bee-hives and robs the inhabitants of their 
honey, disarming their resentment by a curious squeak- 
ing noise it has the power of producing. 

In common w T ith many other nocturnal insects, the eyes 
of the Death's-head Moth shine at night like two stars, 
which adds considerably to the terror inspired by its 
appearance. 



246 NATURAL HISTORY. 

The Humming-bird Moth is so called because its ap- 
pearance when on the wing exactly resembles that of a 
Humming-bird. It feeds on the wing, as the bird does, 
hovering before each flower and sucking out the honey 
by means of its very long proboscis. It is very shy, and 
darts off if the slightest movement is made; but if the 
spectator remains perfectly quiet the Moth sees no danger 
and will continue its meal within a yard of him. The 
Moth appears to gain confidence if it is not disturbed, and 
in a few days will become almost tame, permitting the 
spectator to whom it is accustomed to approach quite 
closely without appearing alarmed. 

The Tiger Moth. — This common but beautiful Moth is 
found in the beginning of autumn. It runs on the ground 
with such swiftness as to be often mistaken for a mouse. 
I have more than once seen a kitten chasing a Tiger Moth 
among the flowers in a garden, evidently deceived by its 
resemblance to a mouse. The larva is popularly called 
" the woolly bear." It is rather large, and is surrounded 
with tufts of long, elastic hairs of a reddish -brown color, 
which serve as a defense against many enemies. When 
disturbed it rolls itself round just like a hedgehog does, 
and if on a branch suffers itself to fall to the ground, when 
the long, hairy covering defends it from being injured by 
the fall. When the caterpillar is about to change into a 
pupa it spins a kind of hammock, and lies there until it 
comes forth a Moth. 

The color and markings of this Moth vary considerably. 
The usual tints are, the thorax brown, the body red, striped 
with black. The two anterior wings are cream-color, 
marked with bold patches of a deep brown ; the posterior 
wings are bright red, spotted with bluish black. 

The Many-plumed Moth is found towards the close of 
autumn usually running about windows. It is very small, 
measuring barely half an inch across the wings. The struc- 
ture of the wings is very curious, each of the two anterior 



COMMON GNAT. 247 

wings being divided into eight beautiful feather-like rays 
and each of the posterior into four rays. Nearly allied to 
this are the common Feather Moths, the most common of 
which is the White- plumed Moth, whose wings measure 
nearly an inch across, and are divided into five feathered 
rays. 

All are familliar with the Common Gnat. This pretty 
tormentor passes its larval existence in the water, in which 
state thousands may be seen in any uncovered water-butt, 
wriggling about with the most untiring energy, or repos- 
ing head downwards, only leaving the end of the tail at 
the surface. The reason for this is very curious. This 
larva breathes through its tail, and is, moreover, enabled by 
means of the fringe of hairs which it possesses to carry air 
down with it. 

It is a singular circumstance that, although the larva 
lives in the water, yet were either the eggs or the perfect 
insect to be submerged, they would be destroyed. The in- 
stinct of the Gnat in order to fulfil all three conditions is 
very beautiful. When the Gnat wishes to deposit its eggs, 
it rests on a leaf or twig on the surface of the water ; it then 
takes each egg separately, and fastens them side by side in 
such a manner that they actually form a little boat, which 
will neither fill with water nor upset, however the water 
may be agitated. In a few days the eggs are hatched, 
when a little lid opens in the under end of each egg, and 
down tumbles the larva into the water. 

After remaining in the water for some days it assumes 
the pupa form. In this state it floats at the surface, with 
the back of the thorax uppermost. Soon this splits and 
the insect emerges, standing on its own cast skin, which 
forms a raft for it until its wings are fully dry, when it 
takes to flight, leaving behind it the empty shell floating 
on the water. This change may be witnessed any warm 
day in summer. 



248 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



The Gadfly has from the most ancient times been known 
as the terror of the herd. At the sound of its approach the 
cattle are driven almost mad with terror. The young Gad- 
flies are nourished under the skin, where they remain until 
they are fit to pass into the pupa state, when they bury 




Humble-Bee with Nest — Stone Humble-Bee. 



themselves in the ground, and after a few days spent under 
the earth issue forth in their perfect state. 

The Humble-bee Fly is found in the early days of 
spring, and may be seen hovering over the primroses and 
other spring flowers. It feeds in the same manner as the 
Humming-bird Moth, and much resembles that insect in 
many of its habits. 



HARVEST-BUG. 



249 




The Flea. — The strength and agility of this curious little 
insect is perfectly wonderful. Many of my readers have 
doubtless seen the exhibition of 
the Industrious Flea, who drew 
little carriages, and carried com- 
paratively heavy weights with the 
greatest ease. The apparatus with 
which it extracts the blood of its 
victims is very curious, and 
forms a beautiful object under a 
microscope of low power. Its 
leap is tremendous in proportion 
to its size. This property it en- Flea. 

joys in common with many other 

insects, among which the Common Grasshopper, the Frog- 
hopper, and the Halticas or Turnip-flies 
are conspicuous. In ail these insects 
the hinder pair of legs are very long 
and powerful. 

The Harvest-bug.— These creatures 
are mostly minute, requiring the aid of 
the microscope fully to develop their 
form, but some are considerably larger, 
and their organs can be distinguished 
with the naked eye. In this order 
are included the common Cheese- 
mite, the Harvest-bug, the Water- 
mites, etc. 




Cheese-Mite 
(much enlarged). 



THE END. 



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